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1  The  first  farmer  was  the  first  man,  and  all  historic 
nobility  rests  on  possession  and  use  of  land." 

— Emerson. 


LIPPINCOTPS 
FARM  MANUALS 

EDITED    BY 

KARY  C.  DAVIS,  Ph.D.  (Cornell) 


PRODUCTIVE  DAIRYING 


By  R.  M.  WASHBURN,  B.AGR.,  M.S.A. 

PROFESSOR  OF  DAIRY  HUSBANDRY,  UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA;    FORMERLY   PROFESSOR   OF 

ANIMAL  AND  DAIRY  HUSBANDRY,  UNIVERSITY  OF  VERMONT;    ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR, 

DAIRY   HUSBANDRY,    UNIVERSITY    OF    MISSOURI;    STATE   DAIRY   AND 

FOOD  COMMISSIONER   OF   MISSOURI 


Lippincotts  Farm  Manuals 

Edited  by  K.  C.  DAVIS,  Ph.D..  Knapp  School  of  Country  Life,  Nashville,  Tenn. 
Every  effort  is  made  to  keep  these  standard  texts  up-to-date,  and 
new  editions  are  published  and  revisions  made  whenever  necessary. 

COOPERATIVE  MARKETING  OF  FARM  PRODUCTS 

By  O.  B.  JESNESS 
PRODUCTIVE  SWINE  HUSBANDRY 

By  GEORGE  E.  DAY,  B.S.A.    Third  Edition,  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

By  HARRY  R.  LEWIS,  M.Agr.     Fourth  Edition.  Revised  and  Enlarged 

PRODUCTIVE  HORSE  HUSBANDRY 

By  CARL  W.  GAY.  D.V.M..  B.S.A.    Third  Edition,  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  ORCHARDING 

By  FRED  C.  SEARS,  M.S.    Second  Edition.  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  VEGETABLE  GROWING 

By  JOHN  W.  LLOYD,  M.S.A.    Third  Edition,  Revised 
PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

By  F.  W.  WOLL,  Ph.D.,  Third  Edition,  Revised 
COMMON  DISEASES  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

By  R.  A.  CRAIG.  D.V.M..  Third  Edition,  Revised 
PRODUCTIVE  FARM  CROPS 

By  E.  G.  MONTGOMERY,  M.A.    Third  Edition.  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  BEE  KEEPING 

By  FRANK  C.  PELLETT,  Second  Edition,  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  DAIRYING 

By  R.  M.  WASHBURN,  M.S.A.    Second  Edition,  Revised 
INJURIOUS  INSECTS  AND  USEFUL  BIRDS 

By  F.  L.  WASHBURN.  M.A. 
PRODUCTIVE  SHEEP  HUSBANDRY 

By  WALTER  C.  COFFEY,  M.A. 

PRODUCTIVE  SMALL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

By  FRED  C.  SEARS.  M.S. 

PRODUCTIVE  SOILS 

By  WILBERT  W.  WEIR,  M.S. 

LIPPINCOTT'S  COLLEGE  TEXTS 

THE  POTATO 

By  WILLIAM  STUART 
SOIL  PHYSICS  AND  MANAGEMENT 

By  J.  G.  MOSIER,  B.S.,  A.  F.  GUSTAFSON,  M.S. 

FARM  LIFE  TEXT  SERIES 

FARM  ECONOMICS 

By  FRANK  APP 

APPLIED  ECONOMIC  BOTANY 

By  MELVILLE  T.  COOK,  Ph.D. 
PRODUCTIVE  PLANT  HUSBANDRY 

By  KARY  C.  DAVIS.    Second  Edition,  Revised 

HORTICULTURE  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

By  KARY  C.  DAVIS.    Second  Edition,  Revised 
PRODUCTIVE  SOILS  (Abridged  Edition) 

By  WILBERT  W.  WEIR.  M.S. 
VOCATIONAL  CHEMISTRY" 

By  J.  J.  WILLAMAN 

LABORATORY  MANUALS  AND  NOTEBOOKS 

ON  THE   FOLLOWING  SUBJECTS 

SOILS,  By  J.  F.  EASTMAN  and  K.  C.  DAVIS        POULTRY,  By  H.  R.  LEWIS 

DAIRYING,  By  E.  L.  ANTHONY  FEEDING,  By  F.  W.  WOLL 

FARM  CROPS,  By  F.  W.  LATHROP 


Lippincotts  Farm  Manuals 

EDITED  BY  K.  C.  DAVIS,  Ph.D.  (Cornell) 

PRODUCTIVE 
DAIRYING 


BY 

R.  M.  WASHBURN,  B.AGR.,  M.S.A. 

PROFESSOR  OF  DAIRY  HUSBANDRY,  UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA;   FORMERLY   PROFESSOR    OF 

ANIMAL  AND  DAIRY  HUSBANDRY,  UNIVERSITY  OF  VERMONT;    ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR, 

DAIRY  HUSBANDRY,  UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI;    STATE  DAIRY  AND 

FOOD  COMMISSIONER  OF  MISSOURI 


133  ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  THE  TEXT 


"  If  vain  our  toil. 
We  ought  to  blame  the  culture,  not  the  soil." 

Pope — -Essay  on  Matt 


SECOND    EDITION,   REVISED 


PHILADELPHIA  &  LONDON 
J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,     IQI7,    BY    J.     B.    LIPPINCOTT    COMPANY 
COPYRIGHT,    1922,     BY   ].    B.    LIPPINCOTT   COMPANY 


Eltclrolyped  and  primed  by  J.  B.  Lippincoti  Company. 
The  Washinyton  Square  Press,  Philadelphia,  U.  S.  A. 


PREFACE 

This  book  was  written  for  use  in  High  Schools,  Schools  of 
Agriculture,  Colleges  of  Agriculture,  general  courses,  Rural 
Consolidated  Schools  and  for  the  many  studious  young  farmers 
who  have  been  deprived  of  systematic  agricultural  education. 

From  an  experience  of  more  than  thirty  years  in  dairy  work, 
covering  much  of  the  United  States,  the  author  has  written, 
without  haste,  what  he  feels  and  knows,  from  innumerable  ques- 
tions asked,  to  be  what  the  thoughtful  reader  desires  to  know. 
Many  of  the  finer  and  more  technical  points  have  been  omitted. 
There  is  enough  that  is  known  to  furnish  a  foundation  and  guide 
for  good  practice. 

The  lists  of  questions  following  every  chapter  will  aid  the 
student  in  fixing  in  his  mind  the  essentials  of  the  points 
discussed. 

The  chapter  on  common  diseases  was  written  by  Dr.  W.  L. 
Boyd,  Assistant  Professor  of  Veterinary  Medicine,  University 
of  Minnesota,  for  this  book. 

Acknowledgment  is  due  and  gladly  made  to  the  secretaries 
of  the  various  breed  associations,  various  Experiment  Station 
workers  and  business  firms  from  whom  help  has  been  received 
and  to  Professor  T.  L.  Haecker,  Dr.  Carl  W.  Gay  and  Professors 
H.  H.  Kildee,  W.  A.  McKerrow,  G.  W.  Gehrand,  A.  D.  Wilson 
and  E.  O.  Hanson,  for  assistance  rendered  in  the  nature  of  criti- 
cism and  suggestions 

R.  M.  "Washburn. 
University  Faem, 
St.  Paul,  Minnesota. 

February,  1917 


14400 


CONTENTS 


PART  I.  —THE  WHY  OF  DAIRYING. 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  The  Dairy  Cow  as  a  Producer  of  Human  Food 3 

II.  Soil  Fertility  as  a  Dairy  Asset 8 

III.  Utilization  of  Labor  by  Dairying 16 

PART  II.— CHOOSING  THE  DAIRY  BREED. 

IV.  Early  Use  of  Cattle 23 

V.  Origin  of  Breeds 27 

VI.  Elements  of  Dairy  Type 31 

VII.  The  Breeds  of  Cattle 43 

VIII.  Holstein-Friesian 46 

IX.  Guernseys  62 

X.  The  Jersey 74 

XI.  Ayrshires 90 

XII.  The  Red  Polls 100 

XIII.  Brown  Swiss  108 

XIV.  Shorthorn 117 

XV.  French-Canadian 123 

XVI.  Dutch  Belted 127 

XVII.  Milch  Goats 131 

XVIII.  Starting  a  Dairy  Herd 138 

PART  III.— CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  DAIRY  COWS. 

XIX.  Dairy  Herd  Management 153 

XX.  How  Can  I  Get  the  Most  From  the  Cows  I  Have  ? 177 

XXI.  Some   Features  of  the  Dairy  Barn 179 

XXII.  Common  Ailments  of  Cattle 189 

PART  IV.— WINTER  FEEDING. 

XXIII.  Winter  Feeding  of  Dairy  Cows 225 

XXIV.  Calf  Raising 248 

PART  V.— CLEAN  MILK  PRODUCTION. 

XXV.  Clean  Milk  Production  and  Handling 267 

XXVI.  Methods  and  Standards  for  the  Production  and  Dis- 
tribution of  Certified  Milk 278 

vii 


Viii  CONTENTS 

PART  VI.— FARM  DAIRYING. 

XXVII.  The  Farm  Milk  House 293 

XXVIII.  Milk  and  Cream  Testing 303 

XXIX.  Cream  Separation 332 

XXX.  Care  and  Ripening  of  Cream  on  the  Farm 340 

XXXI.  Dairy  Butter  Making 346 

XXXII.  Tests  Necessary  in  Creameries  363 

XXXIII.  Farm  Dairy  Cheese  (Gouda) 367 

XXXIV.  Cottage  Cheese 372 

XXXV.  Ice  Cream 375 

PART  VII.— MARKET  MILK. 

XXXVI.  Market  Milk 383 

XXXVII.  The  Adulteration  op  Milk  389 

XXXVIII.  Kinds  and  Classes  of  Market  Milk— Methods  of  Selling  393 

XXXIX.  Food  Value  of  Milk 401 

XL.  Government  Standards  of  Purity  for   Milk   and   Its 

Products 411 

APPENDIX 

Dairy  Projects 419 

Composition  of  Feeding  Stuffs 421 

Fat  Estimation  Table 428 

Index 431 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


PIG.  PAGE 

Jersey's  Home  Coming Frontispiece 

1.  Belle,  the  22^  Year  Old  Cow 5 

2.  May  Bilma,  a  Guernsey  Champion 6 

3.  Litter  Carrier,  Saving  Labor  and  Fertility 11 

4.  Concrete  Bin  for  Preserving  Manure 13 

5.  "The  Ideal  Industry  for  the  Home  Unit." 17 

6.  A  Minnesota  Farm  Home 18 

7.  A  Profitless  Cow,  Made  so  by  Poor  Treatment 24 

8.  Sons  of  Cows  are  the  Motors  in  Pioneer  Life 25 

9.  Illustrating  Need  of  Capacity  in  Cows 32 

10.  Illustrating  Dairy  Temperament 34 

11.  Showing  Coarse  Shoulders 35 

12.  Showing  Sharp  Angular  Shoulders 35 

13.  Young  Cow  Poorly  Formed 39 

14.  The  Points  of  the  Cow 41 

15.  Illustrating  the  Dual  Function  and  Use  of  Cattle 44 

16.  King  of  the  Pontiacs,  Holstein  Bull 48 

17.  Duchess  Skylark  Ormsby,  the  World's  Champion  Butter  Cow 49 

18.  Segis  Pieterje  Prospect 52 

19.  Pieterje  Maid  Ormsby,  A.  R.  O.  Cow,  with  7th  Calf 53 

20.  Holstein  Bull,  Paul  Calona  and  Daughter 54 

21.  May  King  of  Linda  Vista,  A  Champion  Guernsey  Bull 63 

22.  Countess  Prue,  World's  Champion  Guernsey  Cow 64 

23.  Ultra  Select,  A  Good  Guernsey  Bull 65 

24.  A  Guernsey  Young  Herd 66 

25.  Dairy  Maid  of  Pinehurst,  a  Record  Breaking  Guernsey  Cow 68 

26.  Imported  Oxford  Majesty,  a  Champion  on  Both  Sides  of  the  Sea. ...  75 

27.  Noble's  Eminent  Lad,  a  Champion  Jersey  Bull 77 

28.  Sophie  19th  of  Hood  Farm,  the  Champion  Jersey  Cow  of  the  World.  79 

29.  Financial  Daisy,  a  Rugged  Jersey  Mother 81 

30.  Bright  Princess  Jolly  Girl,  a  prize  winning  Jersey 81 

31.  Rosalind  of  Old  Basing,  a  Productive  Jersey 84 

32.  Cupid's  Noble  Fontaine,  a  Promising  Jersey  Heifer 85 

33.  Bargenoch  Gay  Cavalier,  Beautiful  Ayrshire  Champion  Bull 92 

34.  A  Typical  Modern  Ayrshire  Cow 93 

35.  An  Imported  Ayrshire  Bull 93 

ix 


X 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


36.  Kilnforn  Bell  3rd,  a  Grand  Champion  Ayrshire  Cow 95 

37.  Teddy's  Best,  typical  Red  Polled  Bull 102 

38.  Jean  Du  Luth  Beauty,  World's  Champion  Red  Polled  Cow 102 

39.  My  Own  Boy,  Imported  Champion  Brown  Swiss  Bull Ill 

40.  Belle  of  Grattan,  a  Champion  Brown  Swiss  Cow Ill 

41.  My  Own  Baby,  Prize  Winning  Brown  Swiss  Cow 113 

42.  Milking  Shorthorn  Bull 119 

43.  Imported  Milking  Shorthorn  Cow 119 

44.  Jewell,  a  Good  Milking  Shorthorn  Cow 121 

45.  Good  Type  Milking  Shorthorn  Cow 121 

46.  French-Canadian  Bull,  Denis  Lord 124 

47.  Fortune  4th,  d'Ottawa,  A  Champion  French-Canadian  Cow 125 

48.  Knox  Em  All,  Champion  Dutch-Belted  Bull 128 

49.  Julia  Marlowe,  Champion  Dutch-Belted   Cow 129 

50.  Tilma,  A  Good  Type  Dutch-Belted  Cow 129 

51.  Imported  Fanette,  Champion  Milch  Goat  of  America 132 

52.  Fanette,  on  Milking  Stand 133 

53.  A  Well-marked  Toggenberg  Doe 133 

54.  A  Milch  Goat  of  the  Saanen  Breed 135 

55.  Starlight's  Excelsior  of  Jean  Du  Luth,  a  Promising  Young  Sire 141 

56.  Barn  and  Silos 154 

57.  Woodland  Dairy  Farm  Barn 156 

58.  Box  Stall  with  Water  Supply 161 

59.  Comfort  in  the  Cow  Stable 171 

60.  Convenient  Drinking  Fountains 175 

61.  A  Typical  Vermont  Barn 180 

62.  A  Substantially  Built  Cow  Stable 181 

63.  Plan  of  General  Farm  Barn 183 

64.  Elevation  of  Farm  Barn 185 

65.  A  Roomy  Cow  Stable 188 

66.  A  Fat,  yet  Tubercular  Cow 191 

67.  A  Poor  and  Tubercular  Bull 191 

68.  Heifer,  Thin  but  not  Tubercular 195 

69.  Cow  Coming  Down  with  Milk  Fever 202 

70.  Cow  in  Advanced  Stage  of  Milk  Fever 202 

71.  Cow  Affected  with  Foot  and  Mouth  Disease 207 

72.  Cow  Affected  with  Lumpy  Jaw 211 

73.  Showing  where  to  Puncture  for  Bloat 218 

74.  Illustrating  the  Economy  of  Liberal  Feeding 226 

75.  Art  and  Utility  Combined 228 

76.  Illustrating  Relation  of  Food  to  Milk 242 

77.  Silo,  Clay  Block 246 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xi 

78.  Silo,  Home  Made,  Plaster  Lined 246 

79.  Silo,  Crib  Type 246 

80.  Inexpensive  Calf  Stanchion 251 

81.  Calf,  Tender  but  Healthy 252 

82.  Calf  Stanchions 254 

83.  A  Group  of  Skim  Milk  Calves 254 

84.  Well  Developed  Holstein  Heifer 262 

85.  A  Well  Lighted  Dairy  Barn 268 

86.  Sanitary  Milk  Pails 269 

87.  Well  Made  Southern  Cow  Stable 270 

88.  Well  Appointed  Dairy  Barn 271 

89.  Inexpensive  Yet  Clean  Cow  House 272 

90.  Milk  Cooled  in  Air  vs.  Water 273 

91.  Well  Finished  Dairy  Barn 279 

92.  Cows  Kept  Clean  With  Little  Labor 280 

93.  Clean  Cows  Ready  to  Give  Clean  Milk 282 

94.  Elevation  of  Certified  Milk  House 285 

95.  Plan  of  Certified  Milk  House .  .  286 

96.  Plan  of  Combination  Dairy  and  Ice  House 295 

97.  Combination  Ice,  Dairy  and  Power  House 296 

98.  Method  of  Insulating  Ice  Houses 297 

99.  Inexpensive  Milk  House 301 

100.  Old  Style  Ice  House 302 

101.  Babcock  Milk  Tester,  Farm  Size 305 

102.  Milk  Pipettes 306 

103.  Acid  Measures 307 

104.  Milk  Test  Bottles 308 

105.  Filling  Milk  Test  Bottles 309 

106.  Controlling  Temperature  in  Hand  Tester 312 

107.  Composite  Sample  Bottles 314 

108.  Cream  Test  Bottles 318 

109.  A  Cheap  Milk  Tester 319 

110.  Milk  and  Cream  Tests 320 

111.  Reading  the  Fat  Test 322 

112.  Hand  Cream  Separators 333 

113.  Milk  Cooling  Tank,  Cover  Off 342 

114.  Milk  Cooling  Tank,  Cover  in  Place 343 

115.  Bacteria  Growth  Affected  by  Temperature 345 

116.  Farm  Dairy  Equipment 353 

117.  Combined  Churn  and  Butter  Worker 353 

118.  Inexpensive  Butter  Printer 354 

119.  Insulated  Ice  House 360 

120.  A  cooperative  Creamery 361 

121.  Dairy  School  Students 364 


xii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

122.  Cheese  Press,  Home  Made 369 

123.  Ice  Cream  Freezer,  Showing  Use  of  Water 378 

124.  Milk  and  Bacteria  Under  the  Microscope 385 

125.  Butter  Fat  Globules 388 

126.  The  Lactometer 391 

127.  Milk  Bottles  Variously  Capped 394 

128.  Plan  of  Sanitary  Stable  and  Milk  House 398 

129.  Before  and   After— Milk 401 

130.  Composition  of  Milk 403 

131.  Composition  of  Milk  Solids 406 

132.  Comparative  Cost  of  Foods 410 

133.  Chart  Used  in  Milk  Campaigns 429 


PART  I 
THE  WHY  OF  DAIRYING 


PRODUCTIVE  DAIRYING 

CHAPTER  I 
THE  DAIRY  COW  AS  A  PRODUCER  OF  HUMAN  FOOD 

The  history  of  Agriculture  in  civilized  nations  has  been  one 
of  change  from  grain  growing  with  livestock  farming  of  a 
mediocre  sort  as  a  mere  incident,  to  definite  livestock  farming 
with  better  animals;  stock  was  chiefly  of  beef  characteristics; 
and  from  this  grew  a  yet  more  intense  cultivation  of  the  fields 
which  are  kept  up  in  fertility  largely  by  dairy  cows.  The  best 
dairy  districts  of  Europe  were  once  beef  and  grain-growing 
centers  and  our  own  eastern  states  fifty  years  ago  were  noted 
beef  centers  but  are  now  systematically  and  intensively  in  the 
business  of  producing  milk. 

The  West  that  once  boasted  of  its  large  herds  of  cattle  is  now 
cut  up  into  farms  of  moderate  size  where  many  dairy-bred  cows 
are  kept  and  many  others  are  used  in  a  dairy  way.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  the  United  States  will  either  be  a  nation  of  balanced 
dairy  farms  within  a  few  decades  or  be  an  exception  to  the  rule. 

The  question  may  very  properly  be  asked,  Why  this  direc- 
tion of  affairs  ?  What  is  there  inherent  in  the  dairy  type  of 
animal  industry  that  adapts  itself  to  our  more  intensive  con- 
ditions ?  In  this  chapter,  very  briefly  indeed,  the  chief  reasons 
are  set  forth. 

The  cow  as  a  converter  or  transformer  of  coarse,  rough 
feeds  into  fine  grained  and  more  valuable  forms  has  no  equal. 
Physically  speaking,  the  sun  is  our  great  original  source  of 
warmth  and  energy.  A  small  portion  of  the  heat  which  is 
poured  so  lavishly  upon  the  earth  each  summer  is  captured  by  the 
growing  plants  and  stored,  some  as  grain,  a  little  as  root  crops, 
but  much  more  in  such  forms  as  grass  and  fodder.  Only  about 
forty  per  cent  of  the  solar  energy  captured  by  our  cultivated 
crops  is  in  a  form  sufficiently  fine  to  be  used  by  man  direct,  for 

3 

momrr  ubrary 
EC  State  College 


4  DAIRY  COW  AS  A  PRODUCER  OF  HUMAN  FOOD 

example,  as  corn  and  potatoes,  while  the  remaining  sixty  per  cent 
of  the  energy  is  in  the  stalk,  leaf,  cob,  and  straw.  If  we  add 
to  this  amount  the  meadow  hay  and  permanent  pastures,  it  seems 
highly  probable  that  fully  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  food  energy 
captured  in  this  country,  each  growing  season,  is  in  such  form 
that  it  is  practically  useless  as  food  to  man  until  converted  by 
some  animal  into  the  form  of  flesh,  milk,  or  eggs.  Plants  get 
their  energy  from  the  sun  and  their  substance  from  the  soil  and 
air,  while  animals  get  both  substance  and  energy  from  plants 
(or  other  animals).    Man  is  no  exception. 

Utilization  of  Waste  Forage. — One  important  reason  why 
livestock  is,  and  should  be,  kept  on  most  farms,  rather  than 
devoting  them  exclusively  to  the  growing  of  grain,  potatoes  and 
roots  of  which  man  can  eat  only  a  part,  is  because  of  the  power 
of  animals  to  consume  and  work  over  a  great  quantity  of  com- 
mon pasture  grass,  low  land  hay,  corn  stover,  and  some  straw. 
They  consume  the  coarser  by-products  formed  in  the  making  of 
human  food,  for  example,  bran  and  shorts,  or  in  the  making  of 
some  other  commercial  article.  "Where  linseed  oil  is  made  for 
painting  purposes  there  is  left  linseed  oil  meal,  and  where  cot- 
tonseed oil  is  made  there  is  left  cottonseed  meal.  Both  are 
highly  nutritious  as  stock  feed.  These  substances  may  be  fed 
to  produce  beef,  milk  (Fig.  1),  mutton,  or,  to  some  extent, 
pork.  The  hog  has  wonderful  powers  of  flesh  formation,  in 
fact,  will  produce  more  flesh  for  the  quantity  of  feed  consumed 
than  any  other  known  animal,  but  his  power  to  consume  coarse 
stuff  is  limited.  The  sheep  is  a  highly  valuable  animal  and 
should  be  kept  in  greater  numbers  than  at  present,  but  its 
peculiarities  prevent  it  being  kept  in  such  numbers  as  adequately 
to  consume  any  large  portion  of  the  coarse  feeds  grown  on 
American  farms.  So,  at  least  for  the  present  and  probably 
for  many  years  to  come,  the  consumption  and  conversion  of 
the  bulk  of  the  coarse  feeds  of  our  farms  must  be  done  mostly 
by  cattle. 

The  Cow  vs.  the  Steer. —  As  a  food  producer,  or,  more 
strictly  speaking,  energy  transformer  and  conserver,  the  cow, 
according  to  Haecker  of  Minnesota,   returns  in  her  product 


THE  COW  VS.  THE  STEER  5 

twenty-nine  per  cent  of  what  she  consumes,  while  the  flesh- 
forming  animal,  the  steer,  and  in  all  likelihood  the  fattening 
cow  as  well,  retains  as  flesh  scarcely  fourteen  per  cent.  That  is 
to  say,  that  for  every  100  units  of  digestible  feed  consumed  by 
the  normal  cow,  29  will  be  recovered  in  the  milk  and  71  lost  in 
the  process  of  transforming,  while  for  every  100  units  fed  to  a 
steer  but  14  will  be  returned  to  man  as  edible  flesh  and  86  will 
be  lost. 


Fia.  1. — Belle — twenty-two  and  one-half  year  old  Holstein  cow  still  yielding  40  pounds 
milk  per  day.  She  has  had  twenty-one  strong  calves.  She  had  strong  twins  at  the  age  of 
21  years.  During  this  period  she  has  produced  about  200,000  pounds  milk,  containing  fully 
25,000  pounds  of  solid  food.  She  has  been  fed  on  corn  silage,  clover  hay,  roots,  corn,  oats 
and  oil  meal.  Property  Washburn  Children's  Home,  Minneapolis,  Minn.  Photo  by  the 
author. 

A  cow  that  yields  6000  pounds  of  5  per  cent  milk  in  one 
year  will  yield  900  pounds  of  food  solids  or  2.46  pounds  per  day, 
which  is  as  much  as  can  be  expected  in  gross  gain,  bone,  blood, 
water  in  tissue,  and  all,  in  the  steer.  A  cow  that  produces 
12,000  pounds  of  milk  testing  about  3.25  per  cent  fat  and  about 
12  per  cent  total  solids  will  produce  1440  pounds  of  food,  or 
nearly  4.0  pounds  per  day. 

If  comparison  be  made  with  one  of  the  modern  high-produc- 
ing Holsteins  such,  for  instance,  as  Lady  Oak  Fobes  De  Kol  of 
the  Minnesota  Station,  we  find,  as  pointed  out  by  Professor 
Haecker,  that  the  22,063.5  pounds  of  milk  that  she  yielded  in 


6  DAIRY  COW  AS  A  PRODUCER  OF  HUMAN  FOOD 

one  year  contained  the  food  equivalent  of  five  steers  weighing 
1100  each,  and  that  every  three  days  she  yielded  food  equivalent 
to  a  veal  calf  weighing  175  pounds.  If  comparison  be  made 
with  the  product  of  the  noted  Guernsey  cow,  May  Rilma 
(Fig.  2),  we  find  that  the  food  contained  in  her  milk  for  her  best 
year  equalled  that  in  thirty  steers  weighing  500  pounds  each  or 
five  steers  weighing  1500  pounds  each. 

The  world's  champion  cow  of  all  breeds  in  butter  production 
in  a  year,  viz.,  Duchess  Skylark  Ormsby,  in  yielding  27,761.7 
pounds  of  milk,  testing  4.34  per  cent  fat  and  about  13.25  per 
cent  total  solids,  produced  3678.4  pounds  of  solids.     Computing 


Rilma — the  Guernsey  cow  that  produced  the  food  equivalent  to  five  1500 
pound  steers  in  one  year.     .Photo  by  J.  F.  Kelley. 

this  on  the  basis  of  the  total  starch  equivalent  (fat  by  2.25,  plus 
protein,  plus  carbohydrate)  we  find  that  each  100  pounds  of 
milk  equalled  18.G5  pounds  of  starch  or,  better,  wheat  flour, 
and  that  the  total  "  wheat  flour  "  value  of  the  milk  solids  was 
5177.5  pounds  or  more  than  2^2  tons.  At  a  yield  of  15  bushels 
of  wheat  to  the  acre,  more  than  8  acres  would  be  required  to 


QUESTIONS  7 

produce  an  equivalent  amount  of  human  food  in  the  form  of 
flour.  And  all  this  the  cow  did  by  working  over  hay,  corn 
silage  and  various  rough  or  by-product  grains. 

From  the  above  brief  discussion  it  will  readily  be  seen  why 
it  is  that  in  densely  populated  sections  of  the  world,  where  the 
demand  for  food  is  great,  and  labor  cheap,  milk  production  has 
become  of  first  importance.  Dairying  is  an  intensive  form  of 
agriculture,  requiring  more  labor,  yet  recompensing  for  it  if 
rightly  done. 

QUESTION'S 

1.  From  what  do  plants  obtain  the  heat  that  is  stored  in  them? 

2.  In  what  forms  do  we  handle  this  energy? 

3.  What  per  cent  of  field  grain  crops  is  edible  by  man  ? 
^.  How  may  man  eat  hay,  grass,  and  silage? 

5.  How  is  an  animal  a  transformer  of  solar  energy? 

C.  Name  the  domesticated  food  animals. 

7.  Which  one  will  return  to  man  the  largest  percentage  of  the  amount 

consumed? 
fy<  How  many  times  more  efficient  as  a  food  producer  is  a  cow  than  a  steer? 
9.  What  is  meant  by  "starch  value"  of  milk? 
10.  Compare  the  average  cow  of  your  herd  with  an  average  yield  of  wheat 

or  corn. 


fi^ 


-'    I 


CHAPTER  II 

SOIL  FERTILITY  AS  A  DAIRY  ASSET 

As  the  dairy  industry  is  so  closely  related  to  the  maintenance 
of  soil  fertility,  the  dairy  farmer  is  bound  to  consider  this  as  no 
small  element  for  consideration  in  the  profits  from  the  dairy. 

SOIL    FERTILITY 

Fertilizing  Value  of  Plant  and  Animal  Products. — As  is 
well  known,  every  plant  which  grows  from  the  ground  absorbs 
and  appropriates  to  itself  portions  of  the  soil  in  which  it  grew. 
The  quantity  and  the  proportions  of  the  ingredients  vary  con- 
siderably with  the  nature  of  the  plants.  Qi  the  eighty  odd 
chemical  elements  known,  only  ten  to  eleven  seem  to  be  abso- 
lutely essential  to  plant  life.  Of  these  only  three  are  present 
in  such  small  amounts,  and  used  in  such  large  amounts  as  to 
create  a  keen  necessity  that  their  presence  be  assured.  These 
three  are:  nitrogen  (measured  as  nitrogen,  X),  phosphorus 
(measured  as  phosphoric  acid,  P205),  and  potassium  (measured 
as  potash,  K20).  Many  soils  are  so  lacking  in  one  or  more  of 
these  essential  substances  that  they  must  be  provided  in  some 
artificial  way.  This  condition  has  brought  into  existence  firms 
dealing  in  commercial  fertilizers.  Immense  quantities  are  regu- 
larly sold  in  this  country,  especially  in  the  eastern  and  southern 
states.  The  three  constituents  thus  marketed  are  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  in  varying  forms  and  with  varying 
values.  Since  farm  crops  all  contain  more  or  less  of  these  sub- 
stances they  have  a  fertilizing  yalue  usually  measured  by  their 
composition  and  the  market  price  of  these  three  essential  con- 
stituents. Prices  are  slowly  increasing.  Readily  available 
nitrogen  is  now  worth  about  20  cents  a  pound ;  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash  each  about  5  cents  a  pound.  Below  is  given  a  table 
showing  the  amount  of  these  three  elements  contained  in  1000 


VALUE  OF  PLANT  AND  ANIMAL  PRODUCTS  9 

pounds  of  various  plant  and  animal  products.  The  last  column 
to  the-  right  shows  the  fertilizing  value  per  ton  when  the  above 
prices  are  applied. 

Fertilizing   Constituents   in    1000   Pounds   of  Various  Plant   and 
Animal  Products 

_      ,.       -^    _                          „.                      Phosphoric  Fertilizing 

Feeding  Stuffs                      Nitrogen               Acid  Potash  Value  per  Ton 

Lbs.                Lbs.  Lbs. 

Wheat  straw    4.3                 1.3  7.4  $2.59 

Oat  straw   6.5                2.2  12.2'  4.04 

Timothy   hay    10.8                 3.5  13.4  6.00 

Clover  hay    20.9                 4.3  20.8  10.87 

Corn  14.8                 6.1  3.7  6.90 

Oats    18.1                 7.7  5.7  8.58 

Wheat    17.3                 9.6  3.5  8.23 

Rye 16.2                 8.1  5.2  7.81 

Wheat  bran    25.6               29.2  15.7  14.73 

Oil  meal  n.  p GO.O               17.4  13.4  27.08 

Cottonseed  meal    71.4               30.9  18.2  33.47 

Meat  scrap   76.3               81.1  38.63 

Skim  milk 5.0                 3.5  2.0  2.55 

Whole   milk    5.8                  1.9  1.7  2.68 

Butter    1.2                 0.4  0.4  0.56  ' 


From  this  table  we  learn  that  every  ton  of  timothy  hay  sold 
from  the  farm  removes  about  $6.00  off  the  farm,  just  as  truly 
as  though  so  much  soil  were  shovelled  into  the  river ;  and  that 
every  bushel  of  wheat  sold  carries  away  about  25  cents'  worth 
of  the  farm.  Studying  the  table  more  fully  we  learn  that  for 
every  dollar's  worth  of  soil  fertility  sold  in  wheat  there  is  re- 
ceived in  return  scarcely  $3.50;  for  every  dollar's  worth  sold 
in  timothy  hay  from  $2.00  to  $3.00;  for  every  dollar's  worth 
of  fertility  in  average  whole  milk  at  $1.75  per  hundred  $13.00 
are  received.  While  $15.00  are  recovered  for  every  one  of 
fertility  lost  in  the  sale  of  beef,  the  great  surprise  comes  in  the 
item  of  butter,  where  $1071.00  are  received  for  every  one  dollars 
worth  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  sold  (butter  at 
30  cents  per  pound).     This  remarkable  showing  in  the  case  of 


10  SOIL  FERTILITY  AS  A  DAIRY  ASSET 

butter  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  made  almost  wholly  of  the 
three  elements,  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  which  are  so 
common  as  to  have  no  commercial  value. 

Butter  Made  of  "Wind  and  Water." — Chemically  speak- 
ing, butter  is  made  of  those  same  elements  which  go  to  form 
water  and  the  carbon  dioxide  of  air.  Having  no  fertilizing 
value  the  sale  of  butter  does  not  impoverish  the  soil.  Though  a 
highly  nutritious  food  to  the  consumer,  it  does  not  rob  the  pro- 
ducer. This  explains  why  it  is  that  individual  farmers,  neigh- 
borhoods, or  states  engaged  systematically  in  the  production  of 
butter  are,  in  the  long  run,  prosperous,  compared  with  those 
who  regularly  sap  their  soil  to  derive  their  income  from  the 
sale  of  grain  or  whole  milk.  Butter  may  be  said  to  be  composed 
of  "  wind,  water  and  work." 

The  value  of  manure  has  been  known  since  antiquity.  Ad- 
monitions to  fertilize  and  cultivate  are  contained  in  the  earliest 
writings.  Manure  has  three  values:  A.  Chemical,  measured  by 
the  amount  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  contained 
in  it.  These  are  a  direct  food  to  the  next  crop  as  would  be  the 
same  ingredients  introduced  in  other  forms.  B.  Physical. 
Manure  contains  fibrous  materials  which,  rotting,  yield  humus 
and  loosen  the  soil.  This  open  condition  permits  water  to 
enter  more  readily,  yet  to  drain  more  promptly :  also  allows  air 
freer  access.  Aside  from  the  purely  chemical  aspect  manure 
improves  the  soil  by  a  change  in  its  physical  character.  C.  Bac- 
teria1— Countless  billions  of  bacteria  in  the  manure  aid  in  its 
decomposition,  while  rotting  acids  are  liberated  which  dis- 
solve portions  of  the  soil  which  had,  heretofore,  been  locked 
securely  in  unavailable  forms. 

Although  the  bacterial  and  physical  properties  are  clearly 
known  to  have  value,  they  are  difficult  of  determination.  Or- 
dinarily, therefore,  the  fertilizing  value  of  manure  is  indicated 
by  the  amount  of  the  chemical  substances  carried  and  figured 
only  one-half  as  valuable  as  would  be  a  like  amount  of  the  three 
elements  in  a  form  more  readily  or  quickly  available. 


COMPOSITION  OF  MANURE 


11 


The  amount  of  manure  produced  by  cattle,  horses  and  other 
animals  varies  in  amount  with  the  liberality  of  the  feeding,  and 
in  chemical  constituents  with  the  character  of  the  feeds  fed 
(Fig.  3).  The  approximate  quantities  of  solid  and  liquid 
excrement  are  shown  in  the  table  below. 


Fig.  3. — Saving  labor  and  fertility  on  a  well-appointed  farm.     (Photo  loaned  by  Jamee 
Manufacturing  Co.,  Ft.  Atkinson,  Wis.) 

The  Daily  Amount  and  Composition  of  Liquid  and  Solid  Excrement 
Voided  by  Mature  Animals  1 

Animal                                         Solid  excrement  Urine  Tota 

Lbs.  Lbs.  Lbs. 

Horses     35.5  8.0  43.5 

Cattle    52.0  19.4  71.4 

Sheep    2.3  1.5  3.8 

Hogs    6.0  3.3  9.3 

Though  these  figures  are  only -roughly  approximated  they 
^hio  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  246,  p.  726,  1912. 


12  SOIL  FERTILITY  AS  A  DAIRY  ASSET 

may  serve  some  useful  purpose  in  estimating  the  value  of  the 
total  products  derived  from  animals. 

The  Composition  of  Manure. — The  amount  of  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash  in  the  voidings  of  farm  animals 
depends  largely  on  the  quantities  of  these  three  substances  present 
in  the  food  consumed.  The  following  table  indicates  as  nearly 
as  can  be  stated  the  average  composition  of  the  solid  and  liquid 
voidings  of  the  four  principal  farm  animals : 

Fertilizing  Constituents  in  1000  Pounds  of  Fresh  Excrement 
of  Farm  Animals2 

In  Solid  Voidings 

Animal  Water  Nitrogen        Phosphoric  Acid  Alkalies 

Lbs.  Lbs.  Lbs.  Lbs. 

Horse    700  4.95  2.99  2.40 

Cattle     840  3.24  2.07  1.49 

Swine    800  CO  4.60  4.44 

Sheep    580  6.50  4.60  2.28 

In   Urine 

Animal                                 Water  Nitrogen  Phosphoric  Acid  Alkalies 

Lbs.  Lbs.                  Lbs.  Lbs. 

Horses 890  12.0  14.9 

Cattle     920  9.5                      .28                     9.5  • 

Swine    975  3.0                    1.27  10.0 

Sheep    865  16.8                   3.0  21.1 

The  alkalies  include  potash,  lime,  etc. 

The  value  of  manure  per  ton  has  been  a  subject  of  some 
discussion  and  naturally  varies  with  the  dryness  of  the  manure 
(Fig.  4),  the  feeds  previously  fed,  the  degree  of  decomposition, 
and  of  leaching  of  the  manure.  A  ton  of  well  rotted  manure  is 
worth  more  than  a  ton  of  the  green  stuff,  but  one  and  a  half 
to  two  tons  of  the  green  would  be  required  to  produce  one  of  the 
rotted.  Based  upon  the  chemical  ingredients  only,  taking  the 
manure  in  its  ordinary  condition  as  removed  from  stables  the 
following  table  will  indicate  fairly  closely  the  value  per  ton : 

» Based  on  Tahle  II. 


VALUE  OF  MANURE  PER  YEAR 

Value  of  Manure  Per  Ton  Including  Litter3 
Amount  in  One  Ton 

Souroe,<5f  Manure                 Nitrogen           Phosphoric  Acid  Potash  Value 

Horse    13.90                   4.97  15.27  $3.78 

Cattle  y. 11.40                   4.44  12.48  3.12 

Sheep    28.78      f           10.26  24.24  7.48 

Hog     10.00                  15.34  6.58  3.10 


13 


J-J- 


tjP*  <     p-=^l  4 


Fig.  4. — Manure  should  be  preserved  in  a  concrete  bin  where  impossible  to  haul  directly 
to  the  field. 

"While  the  farmers  in  inany  sections  of  this  country  would 
hesitate  long  before  they  would  pay  $3.78  per  ton  for  horse- 
stable  manure,  the  market  gardeners  about  our  eastern  cities  are 
paying  about  that  amount  regularly.  So  keen  is  the  demand 
that  many  full  train  loads  of  manure  are  being  regularly  shipped 
out  of  our  eastern  cities  for  sale  to  farmers  at  from  $2.50  to  $3.00 
per  ton.  This  price  does  not  include  the  freight  or  the  cost  of 
hauling  and  composting  on  the  farm. 

The  Value  of  Manure  Per  Year. — Taking  the  ordinary  rate 


» Ohio  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  246,  p. 


1912. 


14  SOIL  FERTILITY  AS  A  DAIRY  ASSET 

of  manure  production  as  a  basis  and  the  present  selling  price  of 
the  chemical  constituents,  we  have  the  table  as  follows: 

Weight  and  Value  of  Solid  <wid  Liquid  Excrement  and  of  Nitrogen,  Phos- 
phoric Acid  and  Potash  Contained  Therein.     Per  Year  Animal.* 
Elements  contained 


Sheep. 


Excre- 

ment 

Nitrogen, 

N 

Phosphoric  acid 

Potash, 

K20 

Total 

P:0 

6 

value 

pounds 

pounds 

value 

pounds 

value 

pounds 

value 

Solid 

12,957 

64.14 

$12.83 

38.70 

$1.94 

31.10 

$1.56 

$16.33 

Liquid 

2,920 

35.04 

7.01 

43.45 

2.17 

9.18 

Total 

15,877 

99.18 

19.84 

38.70 

L94 

74.55 

3.73 

25.51 

.Solid 

18,980 

61.50 

12.30 

39.30 

1.97 

28.25 

1.41 

15.68 

Liquid 

7,081 

67.27 

13.45 

1.73 

0.09 

67.13 

3.36 

16.90 

Total 

26,061 

128.77 

25.75 

41.03 

2.06 

95.38 

4.77 

32.58 

.Solid 

821 

5.34 

1.07 

3.77 

0.19 

1.89 

.09 

1.35 

Liquid 

546 

9.20 

1.84 

0.16 

0.01 

11.57 

.58 

2.43 

Total 

1,367 

14.54 

2.91 

3.93 

0.20 

13.46 

.67 

3.78 

.  Solid 

2,190 

13.14 

2.63 

10.07 

0.50 

9.72 

0.49 

3.62 

Liquid 

1,205 

3.62 

.72 

1.52 

0.08 

12.00 

0.60 

1.40 

Total 

3,395 

16.76 

3.35 

11.59 

0.58 

21.72 

1.09 

5.01 

In  the  last  column  we  learn  that  the  average  horse,  well  fed, 
will  void  in  a  year  both  liquid  and  solid  manure  to  the  value 
of  above  $25.51 ;  that  the  cow  voids  about  $32.58  worth.  These 
figures  seem  very  high  and  are  much  higher  than  most  farmers 
would  be  able  to  recover  because  much  manure  is  dropped  by 
the  roadside  or  on  the  hillside  pasture  and  washed  away.  The 
urine,  so  rich  in  nitrogen,  is  often  largely  wasted  about  the 
farm.  Another  loss  probably  as  great  as  all  others  is  the  leach- 
ing, and,  in  the  case  of  the  horse  manure,  heating  in  piles.  If, 
therefore,  only  a  half  or  even  a  third,  of  the  total  amount  cal- 
culated were  to  be  regularly  saved  the  amount  still  would  be  an 
item  highly  well  worth  considering,  especially  when  we  remember 
that  aside  from  its  chemical,  there  are  the  physical  and  bacterial 
values. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  three  elements  of  the  soil  are  most  likely  to  require  replacing 

artificially?     What  would  you  consider  as  the  fourth  element? 

2.  What  are  they  worth  per  pound? 

3.  What  would  a  ton  of  clover  hay  he  worth  as  manure?    A  ton  of  timothy? 

4.  What  suhstance  regularly  sold  from  the  farm  hrings  in  the  most  money 

for  the  soil  fertility  that  is  lost? 

5.  Explain  in  what  sense  butter  is  made  of  "  wind  and  water." 

4  Ohio  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  246,  p.  720,  1912. 


QUESTIONS  15 

6.  What  three  values  has  manure? 

7.  How  many  pounds  of  manure  will  a  cow  make  in  twenty-four  hours? 

8.  Which  one  of  the  three  fertilizing  elements  is  most  valuable  per  pound  ? 

9.  Which  is  richer  in  this  element,  the  solid  or  the  liquid  voidings? 

10.  What  is  a  fair  value  of  cow  manure  per  ton? 

11.  How  many  dollars'  worth  of  manure  will  a  cow  make  in  one  year?    How 

much  may  be  saved? 

12.  How  may  straw  be  made  back  into  soil  to  best  advantage? 

13.  Describe  ways  in  which  manures  are   wasted  where  you  have  observed 

them. 

14.  Tell  how  manure  is  best  saved  for  farm  use,  and  give  your  observations 

of  good  methods. 


/fit.     %rt*-cJ  C^rjt^    £u-<-   'is-^-^f' 

/f.  irU/  cU>^    Ca*y 


%  CHAPTER  III 
UTILIZATION  OF  LABOR  BY   DAIRYING 

Dairy  farming  has  a  number  of  advantages  over  other  types 
of  farming  as  regards  the  farm  labor  problem.  In  the  para- 
graphs of  this  chapter  are  considered  the  several  ways  in  which 
dairying  is  related  to  the  farm  labor  problem,  which  is  so 
often  a  difficult  one. 

Dairy  Products  Valuable  Per  Pound — Any  farmer  located 
some  distance  from  market  should  consider  carefully  the  value 
of  his  commodity  when  measured  in  terms  of  the  load  to  be 
carried  or  drawn  to  town.  Thus,  while  common  wild  hay  is 
worth  from  $6  to  $10  per  ton,  wheat  or  oats  from  $25  to  $30 
per  ton  and  cream  from  $150  to  $200  per  ton,  butter  is  worth 
$400  to  $G00  per  ton.  There  are  few,  if  any,  farm  crops  or 
products  which  will  return  as  much  per  pound  as  well  made 
butter.  In  regions  of  bad  roads,  the  production  of  well-made 
dairy  butter  should  be  encouraged. 

Regular  Income. — The  regularity  and  frequency  of  the  in- 
come from  dairying  is  an  argument  in  its  favor.  Current 
expenses  of  the  home  may  be  paid  as  contracted  so  that  when 
the  annual  sale  of  field  crops  or  livestock  takes  place  these 
proceeds  are  available  for  the  larger  items,  such  as  making 
payment  on  the  farm,  buying  improved  stock  or  machinery. 

Child  Labor. — The  diversified  livestock  farm  offers  the  best 
place  in  the  world  for  the  proper,  profitable,  employment  of 
children  (Fig.  5).  The  chicks  are  to  be  fed,  the  calves  must 
have  their  little  mess  of  milk,  lambs  need  assistance,  and  cows 
wait  to  be  milked  twice  a  day.  Much  of  this  sort  of  necessary 
work  may  be  performed  by  mere  children,  and  that  to  their 
advantage.  While  in  calculating  the  cost  of  keep  of  any  class 
of  animals  the  labor  element  should  be  included,  the  fact  of 
the  presence  of  these  animals  makes  it  possible  for  children  to 
be  wage  earners  in  their  own  homes.  Thus  if  the  cow  be  charged 
16 


INDIRECT  INCOMES 


17 


for  the  labor  performed  on  her  the  system  must  be  credited  with 
an  equal  amount,  for  the  money  is  still  in  the  family  available 
for  household  uses. 

Direct  Incomes. — By  direct  income  is  meant  the  proceeds 
from  the  sale  of  the  chief  product  of  the  dairy.  In  some  sections 
whole  milk  is  sold  for  use  in  cities ;  in  others,  butter  fat  is  sold 
as  cream  for  butter-making  purposes,  the  milk  being  kept  on, 
or  returned  to  the  f arm  for  feeding  purposes.     At  present  prices 


Fig.  5. — "The  Ideal  Industry,"  the  one  in  which  every  little  fellow  helps  and  is 
strengthened  thereby.  The  Dairy  float  during  "county  fair"  parade  by  Agricultural 
College  students,  University  of  Minnesota. 

of  feed,  labor  and  produce,  it  is  often  not  easy  to  figure  a 
"  profit  "  in  dairying  when  direct  incomes  only  are  considered. 
Indirect  Incomes. — Skim  milk  has  a  feeding  value  of  25  to 
75'  cents  per  100  pounds,  but  after  that  it  has  a  manurial  value 
equal  to  about  three  cents  per  100  pounds  of  skim  milk  consumed. 
Barnyard  manure  has  a  chemical  value  of  from  $3  to  $3.50 
per  ton,  yet  possesses  physical  and  bacterial  values  which  aid 
materially  in  the  production  of  larger  crops.  It  is  easy  to 
2 


18 


UTILIZATION  OF  LABOR  BY  DAIRYING 


calculate  the  amount  and  market  value  of  feeds  consumed  by 
cattle,  but  the  fact  remains  that  a  considerable  quantity  of  the 
stuff  eaten  throughout  the  year  could  not  have  been  sold  except 
through  some  form  of  livestock  and  therefore  had  no  market 
value.  The  labor  of  caring  for  stock  naturally  should  be 
charged  against  the  income  from  the  animal,  but  when  such  work 
is  performed  by  the  growing  family  who  must  be  maintained  in 
any  case,  to  charge  the  animal  would  require  a  crediting  of  the 
system  by  an  equal  amount.     Time  is  more  fully  utilized  on 


Fig.   6. — A  Minnesota  farm  homo  in  which  a  family  of  useful  citizens  was  raised. 


stock  farms,  especially  on  dairy  farms  (Fig.  6).  Mornings, 
evenings,  Sundays  and  holidays  employed  productively,  even 
though  at  a  moderate  rate,  are  sure  in  time  to  amount  to  a  con- 
siderable item.  These  are  part  of  the  indirect  incomes  or  sources 
of  profit  derived  from  the  employment  of  livestock,  and  this  is 
more  intensely  true  when  the  cattle  employed  are  of  the  dairy 
sort,  thus  admitting  of  more  labor  and  the  consumption  of  a 
larger  proportionate  amount  of  coarse  fodder. 

Regulation  of  Farm  Labor. — Most   of  the  farms  of  this 


BALANCED  FARMING  19 

country  are  so  large  that  hired  men  either  are,  or  should  be, 
employed  for  the  proper  cultivation  of  the  soil.  With  the  in- 
crease of  general  education,  culture  and  convenience  of  the  farm 
homes  it  is  becoming  increasingly  unpleasant  to  keep  the  sort 
of  hired  man,  in  most  places  available,  in  the  home  and  at  the 
table  with  the  family.  Their  labor  is  desired,  their  society  is 
not.  A  cottage  built  on  the  farm  at  some  distance  from  the 
main  buildings,  where  a  hired  man  of  steady  habits,  and  family 
anchor,  may  be  given  quarters,  has  been  found  helpful  in  secur- 
ing better  grade  men  and  in  keeping  them;  but  to  make  this 
profitable  there  must  be  ample  employment  at  all  times  of  the 
year.      The  dairy  herd  furnishes  such  employment. 

Dairying  on  High-priced  Lands. — It  is  not  uncommon,  even 
in  this  country,  for  good  land  near  large  cities  to  be  leased  for 
$20  to  $40  per  acre  per  year  for  truck  gardening,  or  other  in- 
tensive purposes.  In  some  portions  of  Europe,  however,  not- 
ably in  Holland  and  the  Channel  Islands,  where  land  is  seldom 
sold,  farms  frequently  rent  at  from  $50  to  $75  per  acre  per  year 
to  be  used  for  milk  and  butter  production.  The  sale  of  high 
quality  butter  permits  high  rentals  to  be  paid.  Butter  is  a  con- 
centrated product  of  both  labor  and  material.  Dairying  requires 
more  labor  than  most  other  forms  of  livestock  husbandry,  yet 
recompenses  well  if  done  intelligently. 

Balanced  Farming. — The  labor  problem  is  difficult  to  solve 
under  the  one-crop  system  of  farming.  It  is  natural  that  the 
settlers  of  any  new  country  should  turn  their  attention  to  a  few 
crops  for  which  the  place  is  best  adapted,  but  to  cling  too  long 
to  the  single  crop  has  been  shown  to  be  unwise.  Thus  the  north 
central  portion  of  the  United  States  suffered  because  her  farmers 
clung  too  long  to  small-grain  growing.  Clover,  cultivated  crops 
and  livestock  were  needed,  and  are  now  being  introduced.  The 
South,  as  a  whole,  has  clung  too  long  to  the  single  crop,  cotton. 
The  boll-weevil  may  be  doing  for  the  southern  farmers  what 
the  chinch  bug  did  for  the  northern,  forcing  them  to  abandon 
the  single-crop  system  and  adopt  crop  rotation  and  the  keeping 
of  livestock.  While  in  the  West  an  insufficient  number  of  cattle 
is  kept,  there  are  places  in  the  East  where  too  many  are  being 


20  UTILIZATION  OF  LABOR  BY  DAIRYING 

maintained  for  the  available  land.  To  ship  grain  1000  miles 
to  feed  is  to  increase  the  cost  of  the  cow's  ration,  and  handicap 
her  by  that  much.  In  many  parts  of  New  England  a  smaller 
number  of  more  productive  cows,  fed  far  more  largely  from 
the  home  farm,  will  be  found  preferable  to  the  present  system  of 
raising  roughage  and  buying  western  grain. 

The  dairy  cow  salvages  grass,  fodder,  and  coarse  portions  of 
grains.  The  dairy  man,  because  of  the  cow,  salvages  time,  morn- 
ings, evenings,  rainy  days,  and  winter  seasons.  Commercial 
dairying  is  the  stabilizer  of  agriculture.  The  product,  milk,  is 
the  greatest  growth  promoter  and  corrective  of  faulty  diets  for 
both  children  and  adults  yet  discovered.      (See  Chap.  XXXIX.) 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  prices  are  paid  as  rental  on   land  in   America?     Mention  rentals 

paid  in  your  section. 

2.  Which  farm  product  is  most  valuable!  per  pound,  wheat,  potatoes,  eggs, 

or  butter? 

3.  Why  does  dairying  furnish  a  regular  income? 

4.  What  work  about  the  farm  is  the  child  best  adapted  to  do? 

5.  What  is   a  direct   income?     An   indirect? 

6.  What  is   skim  milk   worth   per    100   pounds? 

7.  How  does  a  dairy  herd  help  to  regulate  farm  labor? 

8.  Name  two  dangers  involved  in  too  high  specialization  in  production. 

9.  What  is   balanced   farming? 

10.  Explain  how  dairying  is,  in  a  greater  degree  than  even  other  forms 

of   livestock   keeping,   an   industry   of   salvage. 


\J 


PART  II 

CHOOSING  THE  DAIRY  BREED 


CHAPTER  IV 
EARLY  USE  OF  CATTLE 

Cows,  goats  and  sheep  have  been  used  by  man,  not  only  as 
flesh-producing,  but  also  as  milk-yielding  animals,  since  a  very 
early  period ;  just  when,  will  probably  never  be  known. 

If  we  go  to  one  of  our  best  records  of  ancient  doings,  the 
Bible,  we  find  in  Genesis  18:8:  "And  they  took  butter  and  milk 
.  .  .  and  they  did  eat."  Again,  in  Judges  5 :  25  we  find: 
"  He  asked  water  and  she  gave  him  milk ;  she  brought  forth 
butter  in  a  lordly  dish."  Those  two  passages  would  indicate 
the  early  use  of  butter  as  a  food.  That  it  was  at  least  commonly 
known  would  be  shown  by  the  words  of  King  David,  Psalms 
55 :  21 :  "  The  words  of  his  mouth  were  smooth  as  butter,  bu^ 
war  was  in  his  heart."  If  the  word  here  translated  as  butter 
did  not  stand  for  a  substance  well  known,  it  is  not  at  all  likely 
that  it  would  have  been  used  to  drive  home  such  a  thought. 

Although  the  word  itself  must  have  been  in  common  use,  it 
is  also  quite  certain  that  the  substance,  whatever  article  of  our 
diet  it  may  have  resembled,  was  not  so  common  as  to  cease  to  be 
considered  a  luxury.  This  is  indicated  in  even  a  later  period, 
for  we  find  in  Isaiah  7:22,  after  mention  has  been  made  of  cows 
and  goats :  "And  it  shall  come  to  pass  for  the  abundance  of  milk 
that  they  shall  give,  he  shall  eat  butter;  for  butter  and  honey 
shall  every  one  eat  that  is  left  in  the  land."  These  four  distinct 
references  to  butter  have  led  some  to  believe  that  butter,  more 
or  less  like  the  modern  food  of  that  name,  was  known  and  used 
at  least  4000  years  ago.  They  certainly  do  shed  a  ray  of  light 
on  the  beginning  of  dairying. 

A  closer  study  of  the  matter,  however,  reveals  a  rather  uncer- 
tain condition.  It  is  agreed  by  all  scholars  that  the  word 
"  butter,"  as  a  translation  of  the  Hebrew  word  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, is  misleading.  Gusenius  in  his  Hebrew  lexicon  says  of 
the  word :  "  In  no  passage  of  the  Old  Testament  does  '  butter ' 

23 


24 


EARLY  USE  OF  CATTLE 


seem  to  he  meant,"  and  he  defines  it  as  "  curdled  milk  "  and 
"  cheese."  -The  earliest  references  to  butter  and  butter  making 
in  Greek  literature  deal  with  its  manufacture  and  use  by  the 
Scythians,  and  the  earliest  reference  in  Roman  literature  is  by 
Celsus,  who  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  first  century  a.d. 

From  the  various  references  it  seems  certain  that  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  used  butter  sparingly,  if  at  all  as  a  food,  although 
the  surrounding  people  in  Asia  and  in  Europe  used  it  freely, 
especially  as  an  ointment.     Pliny  speaks  of  it  as  being  used  for 


Fig.  7. — A  profitless  cow  made  so  (probably)  by  poor  treatment. 

anointing  and  in  all  passages  in  which  it  occurs  it  is  spoken  of 
as  something  fluid  and  to  be  poured  out,  although,  according  to 
Hippocrates,  the  Scythiaus  made  butter  by  placing  milk  in  a 
stone  jar  and  shaking  it  until  the  fat  rose  to  the  top. 

Our  word  butter  comes  to  us  from  the  Latin  "  Butyrum  " 
and  this  in  turn  came  from  the  Greek  "  Boutyron,"  which, 
according  to  the  New  International  Encyclopaedia,  is  from 
"  bous,"  meaning  cow,  and  "  tyros,"  meaning  cheese.  Erom  all 
the  foregoing  we  may  safely  conclude  that  a  rather  soft  cheese 


LIBRARY 
N.  C.  State  Cell??, 


THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  DAIRY  COW 


25 


was  common  and  that  the  fat  of  milk  was  used  for  the  purpose  of 
anointing  the  body  at  an  earlier  period  than  it  was  used  as  a 
food,  and  that  its  place  as  a  food  is  probably  not  much  more  than 
3000  years  old. 

Our  word  "  dairy  "  seems  to  have  come  to  us  through  the 
old  and  middle  English,  "  deieris,"  from  "  dey,"  meaning  a 
maid-servant,  especially  one  employed  about  the  farm  or  live- 
stock. We  find  the  same  in  Norwegian  "  deia  "  as  in  "  bu-deia," 
a  maid-servant  in  charge  of  livestock. 

During  what  is  known  as  the  "  Middle  Ages  "  and  later,  the 


Fig.  8. — Sons  of  cows  are  the  motors,  the  grass-eneires  in  pioneer  life.  They  will 
work  where  horses  cannot  go,  live  on  coarse  foods  and  become  marketable  beef  when  too 
old  to  labor.     (Photo  by  G.  G.  Wiltse,  Pine  River,  Minn.) 


dairy  cow  as  an   instrument  in  human  food  production  was 
developed  most  strongly  in  Holland  and  Switzerland. 

The  evolution  of  the  dairy  cow  from  some  mediocre,  early 
type  animal  (Fig.  7),  to  the  present  deep-bodied,  capacious, 
wonderful  machine,  has  been  a  more  or  less  gradual  process,  but 
much  more  rapid  during  the  past  200  years  than  during  any 
previous  time.  It  cannot  be  thought  that  any  man  schemed  to 
produce  an  economical  dairy  worker  and  set  about  to  develop  that 
form  now  known  as  the  dairy  type,  but  rather  that  as  individual 
cows  varied  slightly  it  was  observed  that  some  yielded  more  milk 


26  EARLY  USE  OF  CATTLE 

than  others  and  that  these  were  naturally  selected  to  be  the 
mothers  of  other  cows  who  were  to  work  in  a  dairy  way  and  thus 
gradually,  almost  unconsciously,  the  fundamental  change  took 
place. 

The  cow,  for  the  pioneer  (Fig.  8),  especially  on  the  frontier 
in  this  country,  has  been,  and  is,  a  God-send.  For  nearly  400 
years  in  this  country  the  home-maker  with  small  means  has,  by 
the  use  of  a  few  cows,  been  able  to  provide  milk,  meat  and  shoes, 
from  these  patient  creatures.  Among  the  stumps  of  the  northern, 
cut-over  timber  country,  or  on  the  winter  wheat  pastures  of  our 
western  prairies,  she  is  still  being  used,  not  only  as  a  provider  of 
food  direct  for  the  family,  but  as  a  means  of  cash  income  as  well. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  our  oldest  record  of  the  use  of  cows  for  dairy  purposes? 

2.  From  what  old  time  word  is  our  word  "dairy"  derived? 

3.  From  what  Greek  words  is  our  word  'butter"  derived? 

4.  What  place  did  the  cow  and  the  ox  hold  during  our  pioneer  days? 

5.  Why  is  not  the  ox  more  used  at  present? 


CHAPTER  V 

ORIGIN  OF  BREEDS 

It  is  a  general  truth  that  an  abundance  of  feed  promotes 
quick  growth  of  the  young  and  also  encourages  the  production 
of  a  larger  size.  A  condition  wherein  there  is  an  abundance 
of  feed  through  a  long  period  of  years  makes  for  an  increase  in 
the  size  of  the  stock.  This  is  undoubtedly  the  prime  reason 
why  the  cattle  of  Holland  are  larger  than  other  dairy  breeds. 
The  reverse  is  also  true,  scanty  feed  and  severe  weather  retard 
growth  and  tend  permanently  to  stunt  the  animals.  Thus  wre 
find  the  cattle  of  our  extreme  northern  regions  naturally  smaller 
and  more  agile  than  those  farther  south  on  more  abundant 
pastures. 

A  classification  of  the  original  primary  stock,  so  far  as  can 
be  determined  by  fossil  remains  and  the  present  representatives, 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  at  some  very  early  period,  for  some 
unknown  reason,  the  great  family  known  as  the  Bos  divided  into 
two  great  divisions,  one  represented  by  the  present  hump-backed 
cattle  of  India  and  Egypt,  known  as  the  Bos  Indicus;  and  the 
other  represented  by  the  present  straight-backed  cattle  of  north- 
ern Europe  and  known  as  the  Bos  Taurus.  That  they  are  of 
the  same  origin  would  seem  to  be  indicated  by  the  fact  that  they 
will  readily  cross  breed  and  their  crosses  also  breed.  This 
division  must  have  taken  place  at  a  very  early  period,  however, 
because  it  is  evident  that  a  division  of  the  straight-backed  group 
later  took  place,  and  formed  the  large,  'fierce,  long-headed  beasts 
to  which  the  name  Bos  Primigenius  (Keller)  has  been  given, 
and  the  smaller,  almost  deer-like  race,  possessed  of  finer  qualities, 
and  known  by  the  comparatively  short,  broad  skull.  This 
division  is  known  as  the  Bos  Sondaicus  (Keller).  The  present 
breeds  and  strains  of  the  domesticated  cattle  of  the  world  are 
almost  wholly  the  refined  representatives  of  the  one,  the  enlarged 
representatives  of  the  other,  or  a  mixture  of  the  two.     The 

27 


28  ORIGIN  OF  BREEDS 

present-day  cattle  of  Holland,  known  in  America  as  the  Hoist  ein- 
Friesian,  are  probably  the  best  present  representatives  of  the 
large  race.  The  Jerseys  are  good  representatives  of  the  smaller 
race,  -while  the  Guernseys  and  most  of  the  breeds  of  England 
and  Scotland  are  doubtless  mixtures  of  the  two  races. 

Our  present  breeds  were  developed  by  keeping  a  few  animals 
continually  in  a  certain  valley  or  on  a  certain  mountain-side 
where  they  were  subjected  to  the  same  feed  and  climatic  changes, 
and  where  they  were,  so  far  as  the  group  was  concerned,  inbred. 
The  whim  or  fashion  prevailing  in  one  community  would  also 
make,  in  time,  something  different  from  that  in  an  adjoining 
valley,  even  though  the  original  stock  may  have  been  similar  or 
practically  identical.  Thus  we  find  that  the  little  country  of 
Switzerland  has  developed  two  major  breeds,  and  several  minor 
ones,  while  the  various  provinces  of  Germany,  France,  Austria 
and  Hungary  are  represented  by  animals  similar  to  but  slightly 
different  from  those  in  nearby  regions.  In  this  way  breeds  have 
started,  which  when  refined  by  skillful  feeding,  selection  and 
breeding,  have  developed  into  the  magnificent  breeds  of  the 
present  time. 

The  value  of  having  pure  breeds  is  chiefly  that  the  man  who 
selects  cattle  for  any  particular  purpose  may  be  able  to  choose  by 
name  essentially  what  he  wants,  and  then  be  reasonably  certain 
that  the  offspring  shall  continue  to  be  of  the  same  quality,  whether 
it  is  meat  or  milk  that  is  chiefly  desired.  It  is  of  primary  im- 
portance, therefore,  that  the  breeds  be  madevto  stand  for  some- 
thing definite,  not  only  in  the  single  item  of  economical  milk  or 
butter  or  beef  production,  but  also  in  its  other  qualities  which  are 
the  outward  mark  or  proof  of  the  breed,  namely,  such  items  as 
color,  size  and  temperament.  At  present  some  breeders  of  both 
Jersey  and  Guernsey  cattle  prefer  the  large  size  with  milder 
disposition,  while  others  work  for  the  smaller,  more  highly  re- 
fined animals.  The  value  of  both  breeds  unquestionably  has 
been  lessened  by  these  long-continued  differences  of  aim  on  the 
part  of  the  breeders.  This  seems  inevitable  in  a  large  country 
and  points  to  a  reason  why  most  of  the  prominent  breeds  have 
sprang  from  very  small  places. 


OUR  COMMON  STOCK  h  29 

A  cross  is  an  animal  resulting  from  the  mating  of  two  ani- 
mals of  different  breeds.  The  wisdom  of  such  depends  largely 
upon  whether  the  two  breeds  are  sufficiently  similar  to  give  fair 
guarantee  that  the  progeny  will  not  be  more  or  less  of  a  mon- 
strosity. For  instance,  refined  representatives  of  both  the  Jersey 
and  the  Guernsey  breeds  are  as  likely  to  produce  an  efficient  dairy- 
cow  as  could  be  expected  from  the  mating  of  the  large  angular 
Jersey  with  a  refined  Jersey,  while  the  crossing  of  the  Holstein- 
Friesian  with  either  the  Guernsey  or  the  Jersey  is  a  practice 
never  to  be  recommended.  The  differences  in  their  organization 
are  too  great.  Experience  has  shown  that  the  progeny  of  such  a 
cross  is  seldom  as  valuable  as  either  parent  for  dairy  purposes. 
The  mating  of  extremes  should  be  avoided. 

Grades  are  the  result  of  mating  a  pure-bred  with  common 
stock  of  mixed  and  uncertain  breeding.  A  pure-bred  animal  is 
usually  far  more  prepotent  than  the  scrub  or  common  animal. 
The  qualities  of  the  pure-bred  animal  usually  manifest  them- 
selves in  the  improvement  of  the  young  towards  the  qualities  of 
the  pure  parent.  Thus,  so  far  as  the  qualities  are  concerned, 
the  cow  resulting  from  the  first  cross  may  be  said  to  be  more 
than  half  of  the  blood  of  the  pure  parent.  The  next  mating 
with  a  pure-bred  should  effect  improvement,  but  such  will  not 
usually  be  nearly  as  marked.  The  bulk  of  the  dairy  work  of 
this  country  must  of  necessity  be  done  by  grade  cows  for  a  very 
long  time  to  come.  Yet  their  qualities  should  be  improved  as 
rapidly  as  possible  by  grading  up  with  a  pure-bred  sire  and  by 
better  feeding  and  handling. 

Our  common  stock  are  the  descendants  of  the  animals 
brought  over  in  the  colonial  period  and  soon  after.  The  founda- 
tion stock  of  the  country  differs.  In  the  southern  states  the 
animals  are  largely  the  descendants  of  the  Jerseys  and  Guern- 
seys introduced  to  the  country  as  Alderneys,  and  not  kept  pure. 
There  is  a  considerable  admixture  also  of  the  Shorthorn  blood 
in  the  South  and  elsewhere.  The  early  common  stock  of  the 
northern  states  are  very  largely  the  descendants  of  the  Dutch 
cattle  brought  over  in  the  seventeenth  century  and  mixed  with 
Shorthorns  brought  over  later.     Eecent  importations  and  at- 


30  ORIGIN  OF  BREEDS 

tempts  at  improvement  continually  add  fresh  elements  to  the 
stock,  but  still  the  common  cow  of  the  middle  west  is  largely  of 
the  Durham  or  Shorthorn  characteristics,  while  those  of  New 
York  State  partake  more  of  the  Holstein  nature  and  the  Xew 
England  States  more  largely  of  the  Jersey.  The  pure  breeds 
chosen  by  any  sections  are  afterwards  influenced  by  the  type 
of  the  common  stock  and  that  in  turn  by  the  kind  of  farming 
carried  on  during  any  period  of  time  in  any  section.  Thus  we 
find  a  considerable  increase  of  dairy-bred  animals  in  the  north 
central  states  during  the  past  twenty  years  with  a  rapid  intro- 
duction of  dairy  sires  at  the  present  time. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  two  grand  divisions  of  the  Bos  family.     What  characterizes 

them? 

2.  Into  what  two  classes  did  the  cattle  of  Europe  develop? 

3.  How  were  breeds  of  cattle  naturally  formed? 

4.  What   is  the  value  of   having  breeds? 

5.  What  items  should  be  included  in  the  breed  characteristics? 

6.  What  is  a  cross  ? 

7.  What  is  a  grade? 

8.  From  what   blood   elements  have   the   common   cattle  of  your    region 

descended? 


CHAPTER    VI 
ELEMENTS  OF  DAIRY  TYPE 

"  The  productive  capacity  of  a  cow  depends  more  upon  type 
and  conformation,  than  upon  size  or  breed."  * 

It  has  long  been  recognized  with  some  classes  of  animals 
that  those  of  a  certain  conformation  or  type  were  better  adapted 
to  certain  work  than  those  of  other  build ;  thus  the  greyhound 
for  running;  the  broad,  massive  horse  for  draft.  But  with 
cattle  the  efficiency  of  type  has  been  slow  of  recognition. 

The  essential  economy  of  the  dairy  type  cow  was  first  clearly 
demonstrated  in  1S94,2  when  it  was  shown  that  a  "  beef  type  " 
cow  used  17.5  cents'  worth  of  feed  to  produce  a  pound  of  butter 
fat,  whereas  a  "  dairy  type  "  cow  produced  a  pound  for  only 
12.1  cents,  it  therefore  costing  nearly  50  per  cent  more  feed  to 
produce  butter  fat  with  a  beef  type  than  with  a  dairy  type  cow. 

The  matter  was  more  fully  demonstrated  and  clearly  set 
forth,  however,  in  1900  3  for  dairy  cattle,  while  in  1905  the 
desirability  of  the  "  beef  "  type  animal  where  meat  making  is 
the  principal  aim,  was  shown  experimentally. 

The  elements  or  factors  of  what  is  meant  by  dairy  type  may 
be  summed  up  in  a  few  paragraphs,  as  follows: 

Capacity  for  consuming  an  abundance  of  feed  is  the  most 
striking  single  feature  of  a  cow  possessing  dairy  type  in  marked 
degree.  A  large  barrel  is  necessary  for  the  mere  holding  of  a 
large  quantity  of  feed  and  the  organs  necessary  for  its  digestion. 
The  importance  of  this  feature  becomes  strikingly  apparent 
when  we  consider  that  the  feed  cost  of  maintenance  of  a  cow  is 
practically  in  proportion  to  her  live  weight.  That  is  to  say,  two 
cows  each  weighing  1000  pounds  will  require  for  their  daily 
support  essentially  the  same  amount  of  feed  whether  they  are 

1  Haecker,  T.  L.,  Minn.  Bui.  No.  35. 
,Haecker,  T.  L.,  Minn.  Bui.  No.  67. 
"Kennedy,  et.  al.,  Iowa  Bui.  No.  81. 

31 


32  ELEMENTS  OF  DAIRY  TYPE 

able  to  consume  a  quantity  much  greater  than  maintenance  or 
not.     This  may  be  illustrated  by  Figure  9  below. 

Let  the  top  line  represent  a  cow  of  moderate  feed-taking 
powers  and  her  total  consumption  by  the  length  of  the  line  A  C 
and  her  feed  cost  of  maintenance  by  that  part  of  the  line  repre- 
sented by  A  B.  Since  A  B  amount  is  burned  up  daily  to  keep 
the  animal  warm  and  in  strength  it  necessarily  follows  that  only 
that  quantity  of  feed  represented  by  the  short  line  B  C  can 
possibly  be  used  for  milk  formation,  whereas  in  the  case  of  the 
second  animal,  assumed  to  weigh  the  same,  therefore  requiring 
approximately  the  same  amount  of  feed  for  daily  upkeep, 
namely,  amount  shown  by  line  D  E,  being  able  to  consume  a 
quantity  represented  by  D  F  and  having  a  surplus  shown  by 
E  F  which  is  twice  as  great  as  amount  B  C,  must,  of  necessity, 

A  B   C 

\ 


o £  r 

Fig.   9.  —Illustrating  need  of  capacity  in  cows. 

after  supporting  herself,  have  left  in  her  system  twice  as  much 
nutriment  for  the  formation  of  milk  a-s  the  first  cow.  She  has 
not  consumed  twice  as  much  feed  by  any  means,  yet  the  surplus 
is  twice  as  great. 

This  may  be  illustrated  by  two  men.  Smith  earns  $1  a 
day,  or  $6  a  week.  Jones  earns  $2  a  day,  or  $12  a  week.  If  it 
costs  each  $5  a  week  to  live,  Smith  has  left,  at  the  end  of  the 
week,  only  $1,  whereas  Jones  has  $7.  Jones  took  in  only  two 
times  as  much  as  Smith,  yet  has  seven  times  as  much  surplus 
with  which  to  do  outside  work. 

The  capacity  of  a  cow  is  produced  partially  from  the  neces- 
sity of  consuming  liberal  quantities  of  succulent  roughage  while 
in  her  young,  growing  condition,  but  to  even  a  greater  extent  is 
produced  after  she  starts  milking.  We  must  not  look  upon  a 
cow  as  a  machine  into  which  we  may  stuff  so  much  feed  and 


TEMPERAMENT  33 

draw  out  so  much  milk.  Her  organization  is  not  of  that  sort. 
The  cow  yields  milk  in  response  to  the  impulse  given  by 
motherhood.  As  the  glands  secrete  milk  and  draw  upon  the 
blood  and  lymphatic  system  for  material  to  transform  into 
milk  the  cow's  whole  system,  as  it  were,  becomes  hungry,  and 
the  cow  in  response  to  this  hunger  consumes  liberal  quantities 
of  feed.  Heavy  consumption  and  the  development  of  a  large 
barrel  then  are  effect,  not  cause.  They  are  the  result  of  the 
activity  of  the  milk-secreting  glands. 

A  cow  may  have  capacity,  however,  without  possessing  dairy 
type.  A  high-class  beef  animal  must  have  a  good  middle. 
Consequently  the  question  naturally  follows,  k>  What  will  the 
animal  do  with  the  feed  after  she  gets  it  ?  "  and  this  brings  us 
to  the  second  element  in  dairy  type. 

Temperament. — A  cow  possessing  what  is  known  as  dairy 
temperament  is  inclined  to  be  alert  and  almost  nervous,  in  fact, 
just  the  opposite  of  sluggish  or  sleepy.  Dairy  temperament, 
however,  includes  more  than  nervous  organization,  except  as 
the  nervous  system  affects  the  general  physical  condition.  A 
cow  with  a  thin  neck,  comparatively  sharp  withers,  lean  shoul- 
ders, prominent  spine  with  the  vertebra  open,  with  thin  thighs, 
slender  tail,  and  refined  legs,  is  one  which  will  produce  milk 
economically,  provided  the  other  essentials  are  present  (Fig. 
10).  While  it  is  possible  to  go  so  far  with  this  matter  of  thin 
angular  development  that  the  animal  will  be  too  excitable  and 
too  tender  to  withstand  ordinary  conditions,  it  is  also  a  fact  that 
any  animal  which  carries  appreciably  more  flesh  than  necessary 
to  perform  her  natural  functions  not  only  largely  wastes  the 
feed  which  was  required  to  build  the  needless  meat,  but  is  also 
subjected  to  the  constant  expense  or  feed  cost  thereafter,  of 
maintaining  the  heavier  body  (Fig.  10). 

This  may  be  illustrated  by  two  men.  A  and  D  are  farmers 
who  have  equal  need  for  house  room.  A  builds  his  house  for 
$3000  and  uses  all  of  it.  D  builds  larger,  his  house  costing 
$4000,  and  he  does  not  use  all  the  space.  D  in  this  case  has 
not  only  wasted  the  extra  thousand  in  putting  it  where  it  can 
do  no  good,  but  will  also  be  subjected  to  the  constant  expense 
3 


34  ELEMENTS  OF  DAIRY  TYPE 

thereafter  of  maintaining  in  repair  the  nnneeded  and  unused 
portion.  Just  so  with  the  cow.  She  produces  nothing,  she  only 
transforms.  If  she  transforms  into  flesh  an  unduly  large  amount 
of  feed  consumed  she  not  only  has  almost  Avasted  the  amount 
of  feed  required  to  produce  this  extra  weight,  but  is  also  handi- 
capped thereafter  by  being  compelled  to  support  or  maintain  a 
live  weight  larger  than  is  needed  for  the  work  being  done. 

Dairy  temperament  suggests  that  lean  but  placid  expression 
commonly  found  in  the  best  dairy  producers. 

Constitution. — The  question  of  the  physical  ability  of  the 
animal  made  up  as  just  described  to  withstand  the  physical 
hardships  of  life  continually  arises.  Any  animal  to  be  first- 
class  must  have  constitution,  but  what  is  constitution  ?  If  we 
answer  this  question   "  Constitution  is  the  ability  of  any  animal 


A  B C 

D f  f 


Fra.   10. — With  equal  consumption  the  cow  that  requires  least  for  maintenance  has  the 
most  left  for  production. 

to  perform  its  life  work  and  remain  in  health  throughout  a 
reasonably  long  life,"  then  we  must  conclude  that  the  angular 
build  of  the  dairy  cow  does  not  lessen  its  constitution.  It  is  a 
popular  notion  that  any  animal  to  have  constitution  must  have 
a  broad  as  well  as  deep  chest.  Immature  students  often  con- 
fuse fleshiness  with  constitution  (Fig.  11).  The  dairy  cow 
should  have  a  deep  chest  and  one  moderately  broad  at  the  floor 
of  the  chest,  or  in  other  words,  there  must  be  room  in  the  chest 
cavity  for  large  lungs  for  the  purifying  of  a  large  quantity  of 
blood  and  for  a  large,  strong  heart  for  the  pumping  of  this 
large  blood  quantity  (Fig.  12). 

Constitution  includes,  however,  that  intangible  item  of 
nerve.  This  element  is  best  illustrated  in  the  case  of  horses. 
Some  thin,  deep-chested  horses  are  able  to  work,  run  or  fight 
the  larger,  heavier  horses  literally  to  the  grave.     Another  item 


CONSTITUTION 


35 


in  this  connection  is  that  the  resistance  met  by  the  blood  in  its 
circulation  throughout  the  body  is  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  impor- 
tant as  the  actual  pumping  power  of  the  heart  itself.  Any 
animal  when  fat,  is  at  a  disadvantage  in  that  many,  or  all,  of 
the  finer  blood  vessels  are  surrounded  by  a  more  or  less  compact 
mass  which  not  only  reduces  the  size  of  the  blood-vessels  some- 


Fig.    11. — Showing  coarse  shoulders,  an  undesirable  point. 
Fio.   12. — Showing  sharp,  angular  shoulders,  desirable  in  dairy  type. 

what,  but  also  renders  them  less  elastic,  less  responsive  to  the 
pulsations  of  the  heart.  This  throws  a  greater  burden  upon  the 
heart  itself.  Given  two  animals  with  heart  power  equal,  one 
animal  in  moderate  flesh  or  lean,  blood-vessels  surrounded  by 
loose  connective  tissue,  the  other  with  blood-vessels  surrounded 
by  fat,  the  leaner  animal  would  be  able  to  work  or  run  longest 
and  would  be  said  to  possess  the  strongest  constitution.     In 


36  ELEMENTS  OF  DAIRY  TYPE 

rating  the  constitution  of  the  dairy  cow,  therefore,  the  resistance 
to  the  heart  must  be  taken  into  consideration  fully  as  much  as 
the  pumping  power  of  the  heart  itself. 

Mammary  Development. — Xot  infrequently  animals  are 
met  which  have  capacity  in  moderate  degree,  and  certain  con- 
stitution, and  still  do  not  yield  milk  as  abundantly  as  we  might 
think  they  should.  Such  animals  are  usually  deficient  in  the 
mammary  glands,  something  over  which  man  as  yet  has  little 
control.  The  economical  dairy  cow  will  possess  an  udder  with 
connective  tissue  elastic  and  flexible.  The  good  udder  will  milk 
out  and  become  very  flabby.  The  udder  which  is  so  meaty 
that  it  will  hold  its  form  after  all  the  milk  has  been  withdrawn 
is  seldom  found  on  a  good  dairy  cow.  Accompanying  the  well- 
developed  udder  are  found  large,  crooked,  elastic  veins  running 
forward  from  the  udder  to  two  or  more  points  near  the  region 
of  the  heart.  These  so-called  "  milk  veins  "  are  filled  with 
blood  which  has  finished  its  work  in  and  about  the  mammary 
glands,  and  we  reason  that  if  a  large  vein  is  needed  to  carry  the 
blood  which  has  been  used  in  the  gland,  that  the  gland  itself  must 
be  reasonably  active.  Certain  it  is  that  the  most  powerful  dairy 
producers  show  veining  in  a  marked  degree,  not  only  on  the 
abdomen,  but  on  the  side  of  the  udder  as  well  (Fig.  19).  The 
mammary  system  then  furnishes  an  expression  of  dairy  ability 
which  must  be  considered  along  with  the  matter  of  capacity, 
temperament  and  constitution. 

Femininity. — The  yielding  of  milk  is  pre-eminently  a  func- 
tion of  the  female.  To  be  a  good  cow  she  must  have  the  facial 
expression  of  a  female,  rather  than  a  male.  The  bold  mas- 
culine expression  is  seldom  found  upon  a  good  dairy  cow. 

The  triple  wedge  is  an  expression  used  formerly  more  than 
at  the  present  time  to  designate  the  conformation  or  the  type  of 
dairy  cow  found  to  be  the  most  efficient.  Looking  at  the  cow 
from  her  side,  taking  the  nose  as  the  thin  edge  of  the  wedge,  we 
notice  that  the  lines  of  the  body  draw  continually  farther  and 
farther  apart  until  upon  reaching  the  region  of  the  udder  the 
lines  are  fully  fifty  per  cent  farther  apart  than  at  the  chest,  thus 
forming  the  shape  of  a  wedge.     The  second  wedge  form  would 


THE  ESCUTCHEON  37 

be  noted  if  we  could  look  down  upon  the  back  of  the  cow.  The 
thin  edge  of  the  wedge  would  be  forward,  the  body  of  the  cow 
becoming  wider  towards  her  rear  until  the  region  of  the  paunch 
has  been  reached,  where  the  greatest  dimensions  will  be  shown. 
The  third  wedge  is  seen  by  looking  at  the  cow  from  the  front. 
The  sharp  edge  of  the  wedge  will  be  her  shoulders,  the  wedge 
thickening  as  it  goes  downward  until  a  point  at  the  floor  of  the 
chest  has  been  reached.  Cows  built  thus,  however,  usually 
spread  their  front  feet  slightly,  thus  continuing  the  wedge  to 
the  ground.  May  Eilma,  Fig.  2,  illustrates  the  point  of  this 
paragraph. 

The  escutcheon  is  that  area  of  the  cow  situated  immediately 
above  the  rear  portion  of  the  udder  and  extending  upward  and 
laterally  onto  the  thighs,  on  which  area  the  hair  naturally  turns 
upward  rather  than  downward.  Particular  attention  was  first 
drawn  to  this  mark  by  Francis  Guenon,  in  France,  prior  to 
1837.  Mr.  Guenon  classified  the  various  kinds  of  escutcheons 
into  eight  classes  and  eight  orders,  making  sixty-four  different 
combinations,  to  each  one  of  which  he  affixed  a  figure  which  he 
calculated  would  be  the  amount  of  milk  which  that  cow  would 
yield  under  good  treatment  in  a  year.  His  statements  were  so 
positive  and  his  description  so  exact  that  universal  credence  was 
given  to  the  theory.  He  was  honored  and  pensioned  by  the 
French  Government.  The  breed  associations  almost  universally 
adopted  the  escutcheon  as  a  point  of  excellence  and  it  has  been 
retained  on  most  score  cards  until  the  present.  With  no  exact 
comparisons,  however,  the  universal  belief  in  the  value  of  the 
escutcheon  has  died  out  until  few  can  be  found  now  to  defend 
its  presence  on  the  score  card  of  the  modern  breeds.  More  exact 
evidence  of  the  fact  that  there  is  little  or  no  merit  in  the 
escutcheon  was  furnished  by  Charles  Moran,  senior  student  at 
the  University  of  Vermont,  in  1910.  His  study,  covering  a 
year  of  record  of  one  hundred  cows  in  three  herds,  showed  no 
consistent  agreement  between  the  quantity  or  the  quality  of 
milk  which  the  cow  was  supposed  to  give  according  to  the  Guenon 
theory  and  the  amount  she  did  yield  as  measured  by  daily 
weighings  and  the  Babcock  test. 


38  ELEMENTS  OP  DAIRY  TYPE 

Tests  of  Economy. — The  efficiency  of  cows  possessing  the 
dairy  type  as  against  those  not  having  such  form  was  well  brought 
out  by  the  figures  contained  in  ^Minnesota  Bui.  Xo.  67  (1900), 
from  which  the  following  tables  are  arranged: 

Test  I 

Dairy  Type  Not  Dairy  Type 

Gross   receipts    $77.77  $54.40 

Cost  of  feed 30.82  28.21 

Net  receipts    $46.95  $26.19 

Amt.  returned  per  $1.00  worth 

of  feed   2.52  1.93 

The  dairy-type  group  consumed  9.25  per  cent  more  feed,  but 
yielded  43  per  cent  more  butter.  On  the  average  they  consumed 
$2.61  worth  more  feed  per  cow  but  returned  $21.76  more  for 
butter. 

Test   IT* 

Dairy  Type  Not  Dairy  Type 

Gross   receipts    $41.55  $28.03 

Cost  of  feed , 15.14  13.86 

Net  receipts    $26.41  $14.17 

Returned    per   $1.00   expended     2.74  2.02 

The  group  of  dairy-type  cows  returned  nearly  twice  as  much 
profit  so  far  as  dairy  returns  are  concerned  as  the  non-dairy-type 
group. 

Test  III 

D_iry  Type  Not  Dairy  Type 

Gross   receipts    $75.7  I  $51.Ui 

Cost  of  feed   37.60  30.64 

Net  receipts    $38.1 1  $20.37 

Return   per   $1.00 2.01  1.66 

The  dairy-type  group,  on  an  average,  consumed  22.7  per 
cent  more  feed  but  returned  48.4  per  cent  more  butter  and  87 

*  This  winter's  work  was  done  when  feed  was  unusually  cheap. 


TESTS  OF  ECONOMY  39 

per  cent  more  profit.      It  consumed  $6.9G  worth  more  feed  per 
cow  but  returned  $17.74  more  profit. 

Test  IV 

Dairy  Type  Not  Dairy  Type 

Gross  receipts    $S0.2G  $48.S3 

Cost  of  feed 23.35  22.11 

Net  receipts   $56.91  $26.72 

Return   per    $1.00 3.43  2.21 


Fig.  13. — Young  cow,  a  bad  rump,  poorly  developed  udder,  and  lacking  in  thrift  and  vigor. 

The  dairy-type  group  consumed  5.1  per  cent  more  feed  but 
returned  112.9  per  cent  more  profit.  They  average,  per  cow, 
$1.24  worth  more  feed  but  returned  $31.43  more  for  butter. 

The  above  "  tests  "  represent  a  winter's  work  on  from  five  to 
ten  cows  in  each  group.  The  figures  prove  that,  dairy  pro- 
duction alone  considered,  the  cows  of  essential  dairy  type  are 
pronouncedly  more  economical  and  profitable  than  those  of 
non-dairy  type. 


40  ELEMENT  OF  DAIRY  TYPE 

A  secondary  lesson,  yet  a  valuable  one,  brought  out  in  the 
foregoing  study,  is  the  fact  that  the  common  and  non-dairy  type 
cow  when  treated  rationally  is  considerably  better,  even  in  the 
dairy,  than  no  cow  at  all.  When  charged  with  feed  at  farm 
prices  and  credited  with  butter  fat  only  (skim  milk,  manure 
and  calf  paying  for  labor,  etc.)  they  returned  from  $1.66  to 
$2.21  for  every  dollar's  worth  of  feed  eaten. 

The  fanner  should  hesitate  long  before  selling  off  his  cows 
until  he  knows  where  he  can  replace  them  with  better  ones 
(Fig.  13). 

A  CIIAMPIOX  COW 

The  perfection  already  reached  in  the  various  points,  as 
well  as  the  degree  of  intensity  desirable  in  them,  varies  with  the 
several  breeds,  but  reviewing  the  question  of  dairy  type  by 
means  of  figure  11,  we  find  that  our  present  ideal  of  what  a 
dairy  cow  ought  to  be  will  include  the  following  points : 

1.  Nostril,  open,  clear. 

2.  Muzzle,  broad  and  lips  strong. 

3.  Forehead,  broad. 

4.  Eyes,  briglit,  full. 

5.  Jaws,  strong,  well  muscled. 

G.  Neck,  muscular  but  not  thick. 

7.  Shoulder  tops,  sharp,  at  least  not  coarse  or  heavy. 

8.  Crops,  well  muscled. 

9.  Chine,  vertebrae  open-spaced. 

10.  Loin,  broad  and  strong. 

11.  Rump,  level,  long. 

12.  Hip  bones,  broad  between  joints. 

13.  Tlmrl  joints,  high  far  apart. 

14.  Fin  bones,  prominent,  far  apart. 

15.  Tail,  long,  tapering. 

16.  Switch,  full    brushed. 

17.  Thigh,  straight  or  incurving,  not  too  thick. 

18.  Shoulder,  lean,  firm,  not  covered  over  with  fat. 

19.  Dewlap,  not  heavy,  throat  clean. 

20.  Brisket,  more  prominent  on  some  breeds,  not  coarse. 

21.  Heart  girth,  deep,  and  wide  from  side  to  side  at  bottom  of  chest. 

22.  Milk  wells,  large,  numerous. 

23.  Milk  vein,  large,  crooked,  elastic  and  running  well  forward. 

24.  Fore  udder,  extending  well  forward. 


A  CHAMPION  COW 


41 


42  ELEMENTS  OF  DAIRY  TYPE 

25.  Hear  udder  should  be  full  and  attached  high  and  broadly,  whole  well  held 

up,  not  pendulous. 

26.  Teats,  four  to  five  inches  long.     Well  spaced,  cylindrical  in  form. 

27.  Legs  below  hock  and  knee  refined,  not  heavy  nor  coarse. 

28.  Pasterns,  strong,  upright. 

Type  Essential  to  Economy. — There  are  numerous  instances 
of  cows  producing  large  yields  of  milk  and  milk  fat,  which  cows 
carried  more  flesh  than  is  usually  accepted  as  most  desirable 
in  dairy  cows,  but  it  has  not  been  shown  that  these  large-produc- 
ing cows  necessarily  yielded  milk  as  economically  for  the  feed 
consumed  as  those  of  large  capacity,  carrying  less  flesh.  While 
it  is  true  that  type  is  primarily  more  essential  than  breed,  it  is 
equally  true  that  within  certain  breeds  the  desired  type  is  far 
more  likely  to  be  found  than  in  others.  Thus  any  fanner 
desiring  cows  which  will  give  milk  economically  will  do  wisely 
to  go  to  one  of  the  recognized  standard  dairy  breeds  for  his 
stock,  and  it  is  only  by  maintaining  pure  breeds  and  by  working 
within  the  breed  to  develop  the  strongest  dairy  type  that  we 
shall  secure  in  time  the  most  efficient  dairy  animals. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  meant  by  dairy  type? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  capacity? 

3.  Does   a  cow   develop   capacity  by   eating  or   does   she  eat  because  she 

has  capacity? 

4.  Illustrate  how  it  is  essential  that  a  cow  have  capacity  if  she  is  to  be 

rated  as  a  good  dairy  cow. 

5.  What  is  meant  by  dairy  temperament? 

6.  What  are  the  indications  of  dairy  temperament? 

7.  What  is  constitution? 

8.  What  effect  has  fatness  on  the  work  to  be  done  by  the  heart. 

9.  What  conditions  of  the  mammary  organs  indicate  high  dairy  quality? 

10.  Why  is  the  feminine  "look"  of  a  cow  a  point  to  be  noted? 

11.  Explain  the  "triple  wedge." 

121.  Which  was  recognized  first,  breed  or  type,  as  being  the  more  essential  in 
economy  of  production? 

13.  Does  excessively  large  production  mean  economical  production? 

14.  Where  should  one  look  for  the  type  of  animal  desired? 

15.  What  is  the  escutcheon,  and  of  what  importance  is  it? 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE 

There  are  in  America  seventeen  or  more  distinct  pure  breeds 
of  cattle  and  many  grades  and  crosses  of  each  breed.  The  great 
mass  presents  similar  general  qualities,  but  groups  and  in- 
dividuals differ  in  vital  detail  with  respect  to  degree  of  useful- 
ness for  any  particular  purpose.  Some  are  blocky  with  broad 
backs  and  are  known  as  beef  breeds,  while  others  are  more 
angular  in  form  and  thinner  over  the  shoulders,  and  are  known 
as  dairy  animals,  yet  there  is  no  cow  so  strongly  bred  for  beef 
that  she  will  not  give  some  milk,  which  milk  may  be  and  occa- 
sionally is  drawn  by  hand  and  turned  into  dairy  channels.  All 
the  breeds  of  pronounced  beef-type  cattle  yield  milk  consid- 
erably above  the  average  in  fat  content.  There  is  no  cow,  on 
the  other  hand,  so  intensely  bred  for  milk  production  but  that 
she  does  develop  a  body  which  may  be  and  regularly  is  used  for 
human  food  when  she  is  past  usefulness  in  the  dairy.  It  is  a 
matter  of  common  knowledge  and  record  that  even  the  "  common 
to  fair  "  cows  sell  for  beef  at  from  $40  to  $60  regularly  on 
the  open  market.  This  is  fully  one-half  the  price  per  pound 
paid  for  good,  well-finished  beef  steers,  while  a  steer  from  one 
of  the  admitted  dairy  breeds,  such  as  Holstein,  Ayrshire,  or 
Guernsey,  is  cut  in  price  only  one-half  to  one  cent  per  pound 
from  that  paid  for  good,  beef-bred  cattle.  The  loss  in  beefing 
the  male  calves  of  dairy  cows  is  therefore  not  a  total,  but  a 
fractional  one  and  amounts  to  only  7  to  15  per  cent  of  the  amount 
paid  for  top-notch  cattle. 

That  many  of  the  heavy  breeds,  such  as  Red  Polls,  Brown 
Swiss  and  Shorthorns,  will  yield  more  freely  than  has  for  years 
been  required  of  them,  has  been  well  demonstrated  within  the 
last  few  years. 

The  meat-  and  the  milk-producing  ability  of  the  great  mass 
of  cattle  in  this  country  may  well  be  represented  by  figure  15. 

A  glance  at  the  diagram  emphasizes  the  fact  that  "  beef  " 

43 


44 


THE  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE 


cows  do  yield  milk  and  that  "  dairy  "  cows  do  have  bodies  and 
will  also  indicate  that  there  may  be  (and  we  know  there  are) 
masses  of  cattle  occupying  places  all  the  way  from  one  end  of 
the  diagram  to  the  other. 

At  this  point  the  question  naturally  arises:  "What  is  a 
dairy  cow  ?  "  "  When  is  a  cow  a  dairy  cow,  and  when  is  she  a 
beef  cow,  if  in  fact  she  both  functions  and  is  used  in  both  fields 
of  usefulness  ?  "  While  any  one  certain  breed  will  occupy  a 
fairly  definite  position  on  the  scale  at  "a  "  or  "  j  "  or  "  e  "  or 
"  h,"  individual  members  of  all  the  breeds  will  vary  so  greatly 
as  to  lap  over  onto  the  position  normally  occupied  by  another 
breed.  Furthermore,  there  are  strains  of  common  cows  in  some 
sections  of  the  country  that  would  as  a  whole  occupy  a  position 
about  "  b  "  in  meat  and  "  j  "  or  "  i  "  in  milk-producing  ability. 
This  is  as  a  class  the  "  scrub  "  cow  that  is  to  be  gotten  rid  of. 


DAIRY 
CATTLE 


BEEF 
CATTLE 


Fig.  15. — Illustrating  the  dual  function  and  use  of  cattle. 

There  are  others,  however,  that  will  rank  about  "  c  "  or  "  d  "  in 
milk  products  and  "  h  "  or  "  i  "  in  beef  products. 

Those  animals  that  have  been  selected,  fed  and  handled 
chiefly  for  the  production  of  milk,  are  known  as  belonging  to  the 
"  dairy  "  breeds,  and  those  in  which  the  production  of  flesh  for 
meat  has  been  the  principal  aim  are  known  as  "beef"  breeds,  while 
those  animals  that  have  been  bred,  fed  and  handled  to  occupy  a 
midway  position,  are  in  America  called  "  dual  purpose  "  and  in 
England  "  general  purpose  "  cattle.  They  could  as  aptly  be 
termed  "  heavy  dairy  "  or  "  free-milking  beef  "  cattle.  In  truth, 
all  cows  are  dual-purpose  cows,  in  function  and  in  fact. 

By  name  the  breeds  of  domestic  cattle  now  regularly  bred 
in   America   are:   Aberdeen  Angus,   Ayrshire,    Brown    Swiss, 


QUESTIONS 


45 


Devon,  Dexter,  Dutcn  Belted,  Essex,  French-Canadian,  Gallo- 
way,  Guernsey,   Hereford,   Holstein-Friesian,    Jersey,   Kerry, 


In  the  following  pages  those  breeds  of  cattle  will  be  dis- 
cussed which  have  any  particular  claim  on  the  subject  of  dairy- 
ing in  America  and  have  been  arranged  in  the  order  of  official 
records  as  to  quantity  of  butter  fat  produced  in  a,  year,  regardless 
of  the  cost  of  its  production.  On  January  1st,  1921,  the  order 
was:  Holstein-Friesian,  Guernsey,  Jersey,  Ayrshire,  Red  Polls. 
Brown  Swiss,  Shorthorn,  French-Canadian  and  Dutch  Belted. 

The  most  pronounced  beef -type  cattle,  such  as  Hereford, 
Angus,  and  Galloway,  are  so  seldom  used  for  dairy  purposes  and 
are  so  pronouncedly  good  in  meat  food  production,  and  several 
other  breeds  are  represented  in  this  country  by  so  few  animals 
that  no  detailed  study  of  them  will  be  made  in  this  volume. 

Secretaries  of  Breed  Associations. — The  various  breed  asso- 
ciations naturally  change  secretaries  as  seldom  as  possible.  For 
this  reason  the  names  and  addresses  given  below  for  the  breeds 
discussed  in  this  book  are  very  likely  to  remain  correct  for  a 
number  of  vears. 


Breed  Name 
Ayrshire 
Brown    Swiss 
Dutch  Belted 
French-Canadian 

Guernsey 
Holstein-Friesian 
Holstein  Adv.  Begistry 
Jersey 

Bed  Bolls 
Shorthorn    (milking) 


Secretary's  Name 
C.  B.  Burlingham 
Ira  Inman 

E.  J.   Kirby 
J.  A.   Couture 

W.   H.  Caldwell 

F.  L.   Houghton 
M.  H.  Gardner 
B.   M.   Gow 

H.   A.  Martin 
F.   W.    Harding 


Secretary's  Address 
Brandon,  Vermont 
Beloit,  Wisconsin 
Covert,  Michigan 
49    Bue   Des   Jardins, 

Quebec,   Canada 
Beterboro,  N.  H. 
Brattleboro,  Vt. 
Delavan,  Wisconsin 
324  W.  23rd   Street, 

New  York,  N.  Y. 
Bichland  Center,  Wis. 
13  Dexter  St.,  Chicago. 


QUESTION'S 

1.  How  many  pure  breeds  of  cattle  are  there  in  America?    Name  them. 

2.  What  is  a  "dairy  breed"? 

3.  Explain  how  all  breeds  are  two-purpose  breeds  ? 

4.  What  nine  breeds  of  cattle  in  America  are  considered  in  this  dairy  study 

5.  What  three  beef  breeds  are  seldom  or  never  used  for  dairy  purposes? 


CHAPTER  VIII 
HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN 

This  breed  is  one  of  the  oldest,  of  either  beef  or  dairy 
animals,  represented  in  America.  It  had  its  beginning  in 
Holland,  chiefly  in  a  northeast  province,  Eriesland,  and  is  un- 
questionably the  same  which  made  the  Hollanders  famous 
throughout  the  civilized  world  more  than  a  thousand  years  ago. 
Even  back  during  the  flourishing  days  of  the  old  Roman  Empire, 
large,  black  and  white  oxen,  and  cheese  were  continually  being 
sent  from  the  regions  now  known  as  Holland.  A  race  of 
cattle  with  many  of  the  present  characteristics  of  the  Holstein- 
Eriesians  doubtless  were  being  maintained  practically  pure 
fully  2000  years  ago  and  Holland  has  remained  famous  as  a 
dairy  center  during  the  centuries  since.  American  Holsteins 
are  chiefly  from  this  source. 

Though  the  parent  stock  has  been  kept  pure,  many  off-shoots 
and  modifications  have  taken  place  in  surrounding  countries; 
thus,  modified  Holland  cattle  are  to  be  found  in  various  parts  of 
Belgium,  Prussian  Holland,  North  Germany,  Germany,  and  to 
some  extent  in  Normandy  of  France.  This  blood  contributed 
to  the  development  of  the  early  Teeswater  cattle,  now  known 
as  Durham  or  Shorthorns,  as  well  as  having  also  furnished 
foundation  for  much  improvement  effected  of  late  years  in 
portions  of  Russia. 

Home  Conditions. — The  land  upon  which  this  breed  of 
stock  has  been  pastured  for  many  generations  is  largely  of  a  low, 
marshy  order;  in  fact,  much  of  the  land  is  that  reclaimed  from 
the  ocean  by  the  thrifty  Hollanders,  who  diked  across  the  arm 
of  the  sea  and  literally  pumped  the  water  back  into  the  ocean  by 
means  of  windmills.  The  land  thus  reclaimed  is  immensely 
fertile  but,  being  lower  than  the  level  of  the  ocean,  continues 
moist  and  comparatively  cold.  Grass  grows  luxuriantly,  while 
such  crops  as  our  American  corn  are  not  grown  at  all  and  small 
46 


BODY  CHARACTERISTICS  47 

grains  but  slightly.  Upon  these  moist,  rank  pastures  the  cows 
are  pastured  in  summer.  They  are  not  permitted  to  roam 
about,  however,  as  in  this  country,  but  are  tethered  out.  This 
system  of  feeding  and  handling  is  ideal  for  the  production  of 
bodily  size  and  a  quiet  disposition.  The  grass  literally  grows 
up  before  them  and  after  them.  Milking  is  done  in  the  field 
by  the  dairy  maids,  rather  than  fatigue  the  cows  by  walking 
them  to  a  stable.  They  are  likewise  protected  from  chilling 
rains  and  from  flies  by  blankets.  An  abundance  of  succulent 
feed,  close  at  hand,  and  a  protection  from  all  adverse  conditions, 
— these  are  the  circumstances  which  naturally  make  for  size  of 
animal,  quiet  disposition  and  an  abundant  flow  of  milk,  although 
of  medium  to  low  fat  grade. 

Great  care  is  taken  to  rear  breeding  stock  from  the  best 


animals  only,  since  the  land  is  valued  at  from  $1000  to 
per  acre,  and  brings  an  annual  rental  of  $30  to  $50  per  acre. 
Under  such  conditions  only  the  genuinely  profitable  animals 
will  be  kept.  Surplus  calves  are  fatted  for  veal.  To  do  this 
most  economically  the  little  animals  are  kept  in  crates  in  order 
that  they  may  not  run  about  and  waste  any  of  the  milk  that  has 
been  fed  them.  They  are  also  kept  in  semi-darkness  in  order 
that  the  gain  may  be  more  economically  made. 

Body  Characteristics — The  color  of  the  Holstein-Friesian 
in  this  country  is  always  black  and  white.  Very  rarely,  indeed, 
a  red  and  white  animal  is  dropped  from  pure  parents,  but  it  is 
not  eligible  to  registry.  The  size  is  large.  A  mature  cow 
should  weigh  1300  pounds,  and  not  infrequently  individuals 
attain  1500  and  occasionally  1700  pounds.  A  mature  bull  of 
this  breed  (Fig.  1G)  should  weigh  at  least  1800  pounds,  and 
2200  or  2-100  pounds  are  not  infrequent  in  fully  matured 
animals.  The  disposition  of  the  Holsteins,  as  a  breed,  is  very 
mild,  in  fact,  they  are  so  quiet  as  to  be  one  of  the  easiest  breeds 
to  handle.  They  are  not  resentful.  They  are  greedy,  almost 
voracious,  in  their  eating  habits  and  naturally  they  are  not  as 
particular  in  regard  to  the  condition  of  their  feed  as  are  some  of 
the  more  sensitive  breeds.  The  calves  weigh  ninety  pounds  or 
more  at  birth  and  are  easy  to  raise.     As  a  breed  they  are  com- 


48 


HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN 


paratively  slow  in  maturing,  however,  thus  postponing  the  time 
of  income  somewhat  longer  than  with  the  smaller  breeds. 

Dairy  Characteristics. — The  Ilolsteins  as  a  breed  may  be 
said  to  produce  the  largest  quantity  of  the  leanest  milk  of  any  of 
the  breeds  in  America.  Though  the  fat  percentage  is  compara- 
tively low,  the  fact  that  she  yields  such  liberal  quantities  of 
milk  has  made  her  an  easy  leader  in  the  matter  of  total  food 
production  and  again  very  recently  the  leader  of  all  the  breeds 


R. 
lead  of 


stein- Friesian  bull,  which  to 
s  ami  1'Ji  A.  H  S.  O.  sons, 
tter  of  records.     This  bull 


possessed  a  wonderful  personality.  Bred,  developed  and  tested  by  Stevens  Bros.  Co., 
Liverpool,  N.  Y. 

in  the  quantity  of  fat  produced  in  a  year  (Fig.  17).  The  table 
given  later  in  this  chapter  shows  the  milk  and  fat  records  of  some 
of  the  best  representatives  of  the  breed. 

Not  only  is  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  milk  of  the  Holstein 
rather  less  than  that  in  other  breeds,  but  the  size  of  the  fat 
globule  is  slightly  smaller.  This  fact  has  been  stressed  in  the 
matter  of  choice  of  milk  for  infant  feeding  (Fig.  130).  It  has 
recently  been  shown,  however,  that  the  difference  is  so  slight  as 
to  be  all  but  negligible.1     The  great  benefit  to  be  derived  from 

1  Vermont  Bui.  No.  195,  1916. 


DAIRY    CHARACTERISTICS 


49 


the  use  of  Holstein  milk  for  infant  feeding  is  due  to  the  smaller 
amount  and  the  smaller  proportionate  amount  of  fat  present 
rather  than  to  the  small  size  of  the  fat  globule.  The  milk  of  the 
Holstein  carries  a  comparatively  higher  amount  of  albumen  to 
casein.  This  fact  may  have  a  slight  value  in  infant  feeding. 
Before  the  invention  of  the  centrifugal  cream  separator  the  fact 
that  the  Holstein  fat  globule  was  small  rendered  this  breed 
doubly  handicapped  in  the  matter  of  butter  production,  since 


Fig.  17. — Duchess  Skylark  Ormsby,  the  world's  champion  in  butter  fat  production. 
Record  for  one  year:  Milk,  27,761  pounds  test,  4.34  per  cent  fat;  butter  fat,  1205.09  pounds,  / 
equivalent  to  1507.36  pounds  of  80  per  cent  butter.      Developed  and  owned  by  John  B. 
Irwin,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 

the  cream  of  Holstein  milk  cannot  rise  as  promptly  nor  as  com- 
pletely as  that  on  the  Jersey  or  Guernsey  milk.  The  lack  of 
color,  too,  is  an  item  in  some  markets.  Holstein  milk  is  par- 
ticularly devoid  of  the  yellow  color.  The  color  of  milk  or 
cream,  however,  is  an  exceedingly  poor  gauge  of  its  richness  and 
is  of  no  consequence  in  commercial  butter  or  cheese  making. 
Cows  of  this  breed  have  held  for  years  the  world's  record  for 
butter  production  as  well  as  for  milk  production.     Taken  in  her 


50  HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN 

entirety,  the  Holstein  cow  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  and 
valuable  dairy  machines. 

Beef  Characteristics. — Since  the  laws  of  animal  breeding 
are  but  poorly  known  by  any  one  and  are  difficult  of  control  by 
the  best,  we  must  expect  that  as  variations  occurred  and  in- 
dividual preferences  varied,  the  stock  even  in  the  older  countries, 
should  vary  somewhat  in  their  intensity  of  dairy  type.  In  some 
descriptions  of  the  breeds  four  forms  have  been  recognized, 
namely :  the  milk  form,  the  milk  and  beef  form,  the  beef  and 
milk  form,  and  the  beef  form.  The  Holsteins,  however,  are  not 
first-rate  beef  animals  since  they  are  of  slow  maturity,  com- 
paratively heavy  of  bone  and  seldom  place  the  gain  either  where 
it  will  be  most  valuable  or  in  the  most  valuable  condition  when 
rightly  placed.  Although  the  prejudice  on  the  part  of  buyers 
has  doubtless  caused  a  greater  difference  in  price  than  the  actual 
difference  in  carcass  would  warrant,  it  must  be  admitted  that  a 
general  difference  exists.  A  Holstein  steer  will  gain  in  weight 
as  rapidly  and  as  cheaply  as  any  animal,  however,  and  will  be 
but  little  less  profitable  than  beef-bred  steers.  Grade  Holstein 
bull  calves  make  a  good  grade  of  veal  and  since  they  weigh  from 
90  to  100  pounds  at  birth,  they  may  very  readily  be  made  to 
weigh  190  to  200  pounds  at  eight  to  nine  weeks  of  age. 

Introduction  to  America — The  first  importation  <of  cattle 
from  Holland  occurred  in  1609,  or  soon  thereafter,  upon  the 
settlement  of  New  Amsterdam,  now  New  York,  by  the  Dutch. 
Other  consignments  were  received  for  the  Dutch  holdings 
farther  west  in  the  state,  but  all  these  animals  were  not  kept 
pure.  They  formed,  however,  the  foundation  stock  for  that 
section  of  the  country  and  to-day  New  York  state  may  be  said  to 
be  the  Holstein  center  of  the  United  States.  Others  were 
brought  over  in  1795  and  added  to  the  general  stock  of  the 
country.  The  first  to  be  imported  and  kept  pure  arrived  in 
1861  in  Massachusetts.  From  1875  to  1885  about  10,000  were 
imported.  From  1885  until  1903  few,  if  any,  came  over,  partly 
because  of  the  presence,  in  Holland,  of  the  foot  and  mouth  disease 
and  partly  because  of  the  high  charges  for  the  registration  of  the 
imported  animals. 


ADAPTATIONS  51 

The  first  American  association  for  this  "breed  was  called  the 
Holstein  Herd  Book  Association.  It  was  established  in  1872. 
In  1879  the  Dutch-Friesian  Association  was  formed.  The 
former  Association  was  formed  chiefly  with  the  animals  im- 
ported from  the  province  of  Holstein,  North  Germany,  while  the 
Dutch-Friesian  Association  admitted  the  animals  which  had 
been  imported  from  Friesland,  Holland,  and  their  descendants. 
The  uselessness  of  maintaining  two  associations  when  the  ani- 
mals in  question  were  essentially  the  same  was  apparent  and  in 
1885  they  were  united  under  the  name,  "  The  Holsteiii-Friesian 
Association  of  America." 

At  the  present  time  the  breed  ranks  in  number  second  only  to 
the  Jerseys  in  America  and,  in  some  places,  especially  the  north- 
west regions,  are  gaining  more  rapidly  than  any  other  dairy 
breed  (Figs.  18,  19  and  20). 

Foreign  Distribution. — This  Holland  breed  is  now  repre- 
sented in  most  of  the  civilized  countries  of  the  world.  It  is  not 
only  common  in  Germany,  France  and  Sweden,  and  in  favor 
with  the  Boer  farmers  of  South  Africa,  and  the  peasants  of 
Russia,  but  also  is  to  be  found  in  liberal  numbers  in  Japan, 
Mexico  and  South  America. 

Adaptations. — There  are  certain  places  which  the  Holstein 
cow  fits  better  than  any  other  breed :  First,  as  the  market  milk 
cow.  Since  she  produces  the  largest  quantity  of  milk,  the 
cheapest  milk,  and  milk  which  is  fully  as  rich  as  the  people  of 
the  city  seem  willing  to  pay  for,  she  is  almost  universally  adopted 
wherever  the  product  is  to  be  sold  by  the  quart  or  gallon. 

Second,  as  a  cheese  factory  cow  she  excels  because  she  pro- 
duces more  pounds  of  milk  solids  during  the  year  and  therefore 
makes  more  pounds  of  cheese  than  any  other  breed.  The  fat 
content  is  so  low  that  the  cheese  would  be  improved  by  the  addi- 
tion of  the  milk  of  the  Jersey  or  Guernsey,  yet  when  the  cheese 
maker  does  his  part  well  there  is  no  necessity  for  introducing  the 
milk  of  any  other  breed  for  the  purpose  of  producing  quality. 

Third,  milk  condensing.  In  regions  of  milk  condenseries, 
the  Holstein  is  largely  preferred,  chiefly  because  she  will  pro- 


52 


HOLSTEIN-FEIESIAN 


duce  more  pounds  of  total  solid  matter  in  her  milk  than  the  other 
breeds.  Thus,  any  farmer  keeping  Holsteins  would  be  able  to 
deliver  to  the  factory  more  milk  from  which  more  condensed 
milk  can  be  made. 

Fourth,  in  very  large  dairies  the  milking  must  of  necessity  be 
done  either  by  a  large  number  of  hired  men  who  are,  as  a  class, 
notorious  for  their  unreliable  habits  and  not  particularly  dis- 
posed to  be  gentle  in  their  manner  or  particular  about  the  milk,  or 


Fig.  IS. — Segis  Peiterje  Prospect.  The  new  world's  champion  Holstein  cow  in  milk 
production.  Record  for  one  year  37.3S1.4  pounds  milk  containing  1,158.9-14  pounds  fat. 
While  making  this  record  she  carried  a  calf  over  five  and  one-half  months  (171  days). 
Owned  by  Carnation  Stock  Farm,  Seattle,  Washington. 

by  the  use  of  some  milking  machine.  The  mechanical  milker  is 
an  unsympathetic  thing  at  best,  but  the  Holstein  cows  are  very 
docile  and  while  not  as  responsive  to  caresses  as  are  the  Jersey 
or  Guernsey,  they  are  not  as  resentful  of  coarse  handling. 

Fifth,  from  the  drift  of  affairs  in  the  middle  west  and  north- 
west countries,  as  well  as  from  a  study  of  the  cows  themselves, 
it  seems  evident  that  the  Holstein  is  rather  better  adapted  to  the 
needs  and  conditions  of  the  general  dairy  farmer  than  any  other 
dairy  breed.     The  man  whose  first  interest  is  his  fields  is  not 


RECORDS 


53 


likely  to  stop  his  gang  plow  early  in  the  afternoon  to  stable  the 
cows  even  though  it  is  becoming  chilly,  and.  cows  so  situated 
often  must  go  out  of  the  stable  in  the  morning  before  the  farmer 
goes  to  the  fields  with  his  teams.  The  quiet,  deep-bodied  Hol- 
stein  is  proving  herself  able  to  withstand  such  conditions.  More- 
over, on  such  farms  a  comparatively  large  number  of  pigs  are 
kept.  To  put  young  pigs  in  the  best  condition  and  to  make  the 
best  use  of  the  corn,  fed  later,  skim  milk  is  needed.   When  skim 


Fio.  19.  —  Pietertje  Maid  Ormsby — Adv.  Reg.  Holstein  cow,  nine  years  old,  with 
seventh  calf.  Heavy  production  does  not  necessarily  "burn  out"  the  cow.  Owned  by 
John  B.  Irwin. 

milk  is  present  the  sows  may  be  made  to  farrow  both  spring  and 
fall  without  injury  to  either  litter  or  dam.  When  the  indirect  in- 
come from  pigs,  calves,  and.  not  infrequently  colts,  is  considered, 
with  the  direct  income  from  the  sale  of  butter  fat,  the  Holstein 
has  little  to  fear  in  the  competition  with  those  breeds  which 
produce  butter  fat  more  cheaply  per  pound. 

Records. — During  the  earlier  days  of  all  the  breeds,  records, 
if  kept,  were  private.     From  some  of  these  unauthenticated 


54 


HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN 


RECORDS  55 

sources  wonderful  performances  have  been  reported.  Though 
they  were  held  to  be  questionable  at  the  time,  many,  if  not  all, 
have  since  been  equalled  by  animals  working  under  official 
supervision. 

The  Advanced  Registry  system  Avas  begun  by  the  Holstein 
breeders,  and  Mr.  S.  Hoxie,  of  Yorkville,  New  York,  should  be 
given  the  credit  for  having  developed  the  system  by  which  the 
various  State  Experiment  Stations  and  Agricultural  Colleges 
are  now  authorized  to  send  out  official  testers  to  verify  the 
records  made.  This  association  was  the  first  to  adopt  the  Bab- 
eock  test  as  the  official  method  of  determining  the  fat.  This 
was  done  in  1894.  While  at  first  the  records  were  reported 
in  terms  of  butter  at  SO  per  cent  fat,  the  rules  were  later  modified 
so  that  the  official  reports  now  are  upon  the  basis  of  fat  only. 
To  convert  the  quantity  of  fat  to  butter  equivalent  it  has  been 
customary  to  add  one-sixth  of  the  fat  to  the  fat.  In  the  study 
of  any  pedigree  note  should  be  made  as  to  whether  the  records 
are  in  terms  of  fat  or  in  terms  of  butter,  and  whether  the  butter 
was  figured  on  the  basis  of  80  or  of  85  per  cent  fat. 

The  minimum  requirements  for  the  admittance  of  a  Holstein 
to  advanced  registry  are  as  follows : 

2  years  old 7.2  pounds  of  fat  in  7  days. 

3  years  old S.8  pounds  of  fat  in  7  days. 

4  years  old 10.4  pounds  of  fat  in  7  days. 

5  years  old 12.0  pounds  of  fat  in  7  days. 

These  requirements  were  established  when  cows  were  not  as 
well  fed  nor  as  skillfully  handled  as  now.  The  question  may 
well  be  raised  whether  the  requirements  for  admission  should 
not  now  be  raised.  This  would  seem  evident  from  the  number 
of  animals  capable  of  passing  the  advanced  standing,  and  the 
fact  that  a  number  of  animals  have  more  than  doubled  the  re- 
quirements. The  animals  standing  highest  in  the  seven-day 
records  up  to  January  1,  1921,  were  as  follows: 


56  HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN 

List  of  Highest  10  Cons  Producing  Above  2)  Lis.  of  Fnt  in  Seven  Days 
Name 


H.  B.  Lbs.  Lbs. 

No.  Milk  Fa; 


1.  Segis  Jayne  Johanna  114658  730.8  40.546 

2.  Segis  Hengerveld  Jayne  Johanna  .  .  173-739  699.1  37.876 

3.  Fairview  Koendyke  Mata 169926  801.5  37.686 

4.  Fancher  Farm  Maxie 186389  579.1  37.475 

5.  Hester  Aaltje  Korndyke 133222  621.1  37.429 

6.  Ormsby  Jane   Segis   Aaggie    150943  879.4  37.064 

7.  Xiva     Kalmuck     162019  644.9  36.141 

8.  Katie  Paul  Burke 292676  690.5  35.692 

9.  Pauline  De  Kol  Ophelia 104434  837.4  35.616 

10.  Changeling  Tidy  Abbekerk   Wayne  152290  637.9  35.545 

It  will  be  noted  from  the  above  that  there  are  many  cows 
which  are  doubling  admission  requirement  and  a  few  which  are 
able  to  produce  almost  three  times  the  required  amount. 

Yearly  Records. — Early  records  were  largely  reported  in  the 
form  of  pounds  of  milk  yielded  in  a  year.  A  few  of  the  best 
of  the  yearly  records  are  reported  below: 

Princess  of  Wayne; 29,008  lbs.  milk  in   1  yr. 

Pietertje    2nd    26,021   lbs.  milk  in   1   yr. 

Clothilde    26,021  lbs.  milk  in  1  yr. 

Clothilde  2nd    23,602  lbs.  milk  in  1  yr. 

Sultana  22,042  lbs.  milk  in  1  yr. 

Boukje    21,679  lbs.  milk  in   1  yr. 

Fat  records  were  not  made  from  these  animals.  Recent 
yearly  records  have  not  only  been  authenticated  by  qualified  and 
impartial  representatives  of  the  state  but  also  are  made  to  in- 
clude the  fat  as  well  as  the  milk  yielded. 

Requirements  for  Official  Yearly  Records. — Cows  freshen- 
ing at  two  years  of  age  or  younger  must  produce  250.5  pounds 
of  butter  fat,  and  for  each  day  they  are  over  two  years  of  age, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  test,  an  additional  requirement  of  1/10 
pound.  This  rate  of  increase  for  each  day  over  two  years  of 
age  brings  the  five-year  age  requirement  up  to  360  pounds  of 
butter  fat.  Bulls  are  required  to  have  two  daughters  in  the 
Advanced  Registry  before  they  can  be  listed  as  Advanced  Reg- 
istry Sires, 

A  few  of  the  best  semi-official  records  made  by  mature 
animals  for  a  full  year  are  shown  on  next  page. 


THE  BREED'S  FUTURE  57 

Semi-Official   Yearly   or  Lactation  Records   for  Full   Aged   Cows 

xt  j  a    t>    xt       c  i~>  H.  B.  Lbs.  Lbs.  of 

Name  and  A.  R.  No.  of  Cow  No  Milk  Butter  Fat 

1.  Duchess  Skylark  Ormsby   124514  27761.7  1205.09 

2.  Finderne  Pride  Johanna  Rue..    121083-  28403.7  1176.47 

3.  O.K.L.  Pearl  Bula 265487  27389.2  1093.40 

4.  Emeretta  Korndyke  De  Kol  ...    189227  28035.7  1077.55 

5.  Ona  Button  De  Kol  115939  26761.2  1076.44 

6.  Maple  Crest  Pontiac  Application  141158  23421.2  1075^.44 

7.  Aaggie  Acme  of  Riverside  2nd  .  .    164467  24690.0  1065.42 

8.  Laurameka 187954  29899.0  1061.27 

9.  Tilly   Alcartra    123459  33425.3  1058.42 

10.  Banostine  Belle  De  Kol 90441  27404.4  1058.34 

The  claims  made  for  the  cows  in  early  private  records  have 
been  excelled  in  recent  years,  so  whether  the  earlier  reports  were 
true  or  not  it  is  evident  that  they  could  have  been. 

The  breed's  future  depends  on  what  the  men  who  are  breed- 
ing the  animal  make  it,  and  this  in  turn  upon  the  completeness  of 
the  ideal  for  the  breed  formed,  held  and  followed  by  the  breeders. 

That  there  are  now,  inherited  from  the  earlier  workers,  sev- 
eral points  about  the  animal  that  need  strengthening  cannot  be 
gainsaid.  A  study  of  the  animals  as  they  are,  reveals  the  fact 
that  a  great  many,  even  among  the  pure-bred  herds,  are  long 
legged,  high  and  "  upstanding  "  with  shallow  body  and  indiffer- 
ent udder.  Such  should  be  and  are  being  eliminated  but  not  fast 
enough.  Others  are  too  compact  in  build,  too  beefy  in  type  to  be 
economical  producers.  It  is  true  that  breeding  to  sons  of  ad- 
vanced registry  2  cows,  tends  to  eliminate  these  two  classes  of 
undesirable  animals.  It  has  often  led  into  another  error,  less 
vital  yet  worthy  of  consideration,  and  that  is  the  sloping  rumps 
or  rumpiness.  Many  animals  possessing  ugly  shapes  yet  having 
deep,  strong  bodies  have  made  very  satisfactory  records.  While 
it  is  true  that  it  is  yield,  not  form,  that  should  be  first  sought,  it  is 
equally  true  that  cows  may  be  both  good  and  good  to  the  eye. 
While  the  demand  is  keen  for  stock  the  bad  rumps  may  pass,  but 
the  calls  of  the  near  future  will  be  for  breeding  stock  from  ad- 
vanced registry  dams,  which  are  also  possessed  of  straight  top 
lines  and  well  balanced  udders.  The  wise  breeder  of  the  present 
will  plan  to  have  the  stock  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  near  future. 
'Official  advanced  registry  is  designated  by  the  letters,  A.  R.  O. 


\ 


58  HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN 

Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  Holstein-Friesian  Cows 


Parts 
Head 


Description 

Decidedly  feminine  in  appearance;  fine  in 

contour     2 

Forehead Broad  between  the  eyes;   dishing 2 

Face Of  medium  length;  clean  and  trim,  espe- 
cially under  the  eyes;  showing  facial 
veins;  the  bridge  of  nose  straight. .  .      2 

Muzzle I?road  with  strong  lips 1 

Ears Of  medium  size;  of  fine  texture;  the  hair 

plentiful  and  soft;  the  secretions  oily 

and  abundant   1 

Eyes Large ;  full ;  mild ;  bright 2 

Horns Small;  tapering  finely  towards  the  tips; 

set  moderately  narrow  at  base ;  oval ; 
inclining  forward;  well  bent  in- 
ward; of  fine  texture;  in  appearance 

waxy     1 

Neck Long;  fine  and  clean  at  juncture  with  the 

head;   free  from  dewlap;   evenly  and 

smoothly  joined  to  shoulders 4 

Shoulders Slightly  lower  than  hips;   fine  and  even 

over  tops;  moderately  broad  and  full 

at  sides   3 

Chest Of  moderate  depth  and  lowness ;   smooth 

and  moderately  full  in  the  brisket; 
full    in    the    foreflanks     (or    through 

the  heart)    6 

Crops Moderately   full    2 

Chine Straight;     strong;     broadly    developed; 

with  open  vertebrae   6 

Barrel Long ;    of    wedge    shape ;    well    rounded ; 

with  large  abdomen  trimly  held  up; 
(in  judging  the  last  items  age  must 

be  considered )    7 

Loin  and  Hips Broad;    level    or    nearly    level    between 

hook-bones ;  level  and  strong  later- 
ally; spreading  from  chine  broadly 
and   nearly  level;    hook-bones  fairly 

prominent    6 

Bump Long;   high;   broad;  with  roomy  pelvis; 

nearly  level  laterally ;  comparatively 
full  above  the  thurl ;  carried  out 
straight  to  dropping  of  tail 6 


Possible  Student' 
Score         Score 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


59 


Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  Holstein-Friesian  Cous    {continued) 


Possible 

Score 

...      3 


Parta  Description 

Thurl High ;  broad 

Quarters Deep ;   comparatively  full    2 

Flank Deep ;   comparatively  full    2 

Legs Comparatively    short;    lean    and    nearly 

straight;  vide  apart;  firmly  and 
squarely  set  under  the  body;  feet  of 
medium  size,  round,  solid  and  deep . .      4 

Tail Large   at   base ;    the   setting  well   back ; 

tapering  finely  to  switch ;  the  end  of 
the  bone  reaching  to  hock  or  below; 
the  switch  full   2 

Hair  and  Handling.  ..  .Hair  healthful  in  appearance;  fine,  soft 
and  furry;  skin  of  medium  thickness 
and  loose;  mellow  under  the  hand; 
the  secretions  oily,  abundant  and  of 
a  rich  brown  or  yellow  color 8 

Mammary  Veins Very  large;   very  crooked    (age  must  be 

taken  into  consideration  in  judging 
size  and  crookedness)  ;  entering  very 
large  or  numerous  orifices;  double 
extension;  with  special  developments 
such  as  branches,  connections,  etc...    10 

Udder  and  Teats Very  capacious;    very  flexible;    quarters 

even ;  nearly  filling  the  space  in  the 
rear  below  and  extending  well  for- 
ward in  front;  broad  and  well  held  up  12 

Teats Well  formed ;   wide  apart ;  plump  and  of 

convenient  size 2 

Escutcheons Largest;  finest 2 


Totals 


100 


Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  HolstevnrFriesum  Bulls 


Possible  Student's 
Score       Score 
contour     2' 


Parts  Description 

Head Showing  full  vigor;   elegant 

Forehead Broad  between  the  eyes;  dishing 2 

Face Of     medium     length ;     clean     and     trim, 

especially  under  the  eyes;  the  bridge 

of  the  nose  straight 2 

Muzzle Broad  with  strong  lips 1 

Ears Of  medium  size;  of  fine  texture;  the  hair 

plentiful  and  soft;  the  secretions  oily 
and  abundant  1 


60  HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN 

Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  Holstein-Friesian  Bulls   (continued) 

Possible  Student's 
Parts  Description  Score         .Score 

Eyes Large ;  full ;  mild ;  bright 2 

Horns Short;   medium  size  at  base;   gradually 

diminishing  towards  tips;  oval;  in- 
clining forward;  moderately  curved 
inward;  of  fine  texture;  in  appear- 
ance waxy  1 

Neck Long;    finely   crested    (if   the  animal   is 

mature)  ;  tine  and  clean  at  juncture 
with  the  head ;  nearly  free  from  dew- 
lap; strongly  and  smoothly  joined  to 
shoulders  5 

Shoulders Of   medium  height;    medium  thickness; 

and  smoothly  rounded  at  tops ;  broad 
and  full  at  sides;   smooth  over  front     4 

Chest Deep  and  low;  well  filled  and  smooth  in 

the  brisket;  broad  between  the  fore- 
arms; full  in  the  foreilanks  (or 
through  the  heart)    7 

Crops Comparatively  full;  nearly  level  with  the 

shoulders   4 

Chine Strong;     straight;     broadly     developed; 

with  open  vertebrae   6 

Barrel Long;  well  rounded;  with  large  ab- 
domen;  strongly  and  trimly  held  up     7 

Loin  and  Hips Broad;     level    or    nearly    level    between 

hook-bones;  level  and  strong  later- 
ally; spreading  out  from  chine  broad- 
ly and  nearly  level;  hook-bones  fairly 
prominent    7 

Rump Long ;  broad ;  high ;  nearly  level  later- 
ally; comparatively  full  above  the 
thurl;  carried  out  straight  to  drop- 
ping of  tail 7 

Thurl High ;   broad   4 

Quarters Deep;  broad;   straight  behind;  wide  and 

full  at  sides;  open  in  the  twist 5 

Flanks Deep ;    full    2 

Legs Comparatively    short ;    lean    and   nearly 

straight;  wide  apart;  firmly  and 
squarely  set  under  the  body;  arms 
wide,  strong  and  tapering;  feet  of 
medium  size,  round,  solid  and  deep .  .      5 


QUESTIONS 


61 


Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  Holstein-Friesian  Bulls  (continued) 

— .         ...  Possible  Student's 

Parts  Description  Score       Score 

Tail Large  at   base ;    the   setting  well  back ; 

tapering  finely  to  switch;  the  end  of 
the  bone  reaching  to  hocks  or  below; 
the  switch  full  2 

Hair  and  Handling.  ..  .Hair  healthful  in  appearance;  fine,  soft 
and  furry;  skin  of  medium  thickness 
and  loose;  mellow  under  the  hand; 
the  secretions  oily,  abundant  and  of 
a  rich  brown  or  yellow  color 10 

Mammary  Veins Large;     full;     entering     large     orifices; 

double  extension  with  special  develop- 
ments such  as  forks,  branches,  con- 
nections, etc 10 

Rudimentary  Teats .  .  .  Large ;  well  placed 2 

Escutcheons Largest ;  finest 2 


Total 


100 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  did  the  Holstein-Friesian  breed  originate? 

2.  Describe  the  soil  and  pasturing  conditions  of  Holland. 

3.  Describe  a  Holstein-Friesian  cow  as  to  body  and  dairy  characteristics. 

4.  What  is  the  disposition  of  the  Holstein? 

5.  What  dairy  characteristic  is  the  most  outstanding  for  this  breed? 

6.  What  cow  and  what  breed  now  holds  the  world's  record  for  butter  fat 

production  in  a  year? 

7.  In  what  four  respects  does  Holstein  milk  differ  from  Jersey  milk? 

8.  What  can  be  said  of  the  beef  and  veal  quality  of  the  Holstein? 

9.  When  and  by  what  people  were  Holland  cows  first  brought  to  America? 

10.  When  and  where  did  the  first  to  be  kept  pure  arrive? 

11.  When  was  the  first  American  association  for  the  breed  organized?    What 

was  it  called? 

12.  WThen  was  the  second  association  for  the  breed  formed? 

13.  When  did  the  two  associations  unite?     What  name  was  given  to  the 

breed  ? 

14.  How  does  the  breed  rank  in  point  of  number  of  dairy  cattle  in  the 

United  States  ? 

15.  Into  what  foreign  countries  have  Holland  cattle  been  taken? 
tfi.  What  four  or  five  places  do  Holland  cows  seem  best  fitted  to  fill? 

17.  When  was  official  advanced  registry  begun? 

18.  How  much  butter  fat  must  cows  of  various  ages  produce  in  a  week  to 

be  admitted  to  advanced  registry? 


CHAPTER  IX 


GUERNSEYS 


The  Guernsey  breed  of  cattle  is  one  of  comparatively  recent 
recognition,  not  that  animals  of  the  present  Guernsey  characteris- 
tics have  not  been  in  existence  for  a  considerable  time,  but  rather 
that  since  their  qualities  and  adaptations  were  so  similar  to  those 
of  the  Jersey,  the  two  breeds  were,  during  a  considerable  part  of 
the  last  century,  considered  as  one  breed  and  both  in  England  and 
America  were  spoken  of  as  "  Alderney  "  cattle,  from  the  group 
of  Alderney  or  Channel  Islands  to  which  the  islands  of  Jersey 
and  Guernsey  belong. 

Origin. — The  foundation  stock  for  this  breed  was  undoubt- 
edly very  similar  to,  if  not  practically  identical  with  that  used  on 
the  island  of  Jersey.  Animals  probably  from  Xormandy  and 
Brittany  were,  during  a  very  early  period,  taken  to  the  Island  of 
Guernsey,  which  is  the  second  largest  of  the  Channel  Island 
group.  Here  they  have  been  bred  for  hundreds  of  years.  During 
the  earlier  period  it  is  highly  probable  that  some  mixing  took 
place,  especially  with  the  animals  from  the  Island  of  Jersey. 
But  the  interchange  of  animals  between  the  two  islands  had  to 
cease  in  one  direction  in  1763  when  the  residents  of  Jersey  for- 
bade the  introduction  of  breeding  stock,  and  in  the  other  direction 
in  1819,  since  when  animals  on  Guernsey  Island  have  been  kept 
pure,  even  from  Jersey  influence.  In  that  year  the  Guernsey 
Islanders  passed  laws  similar  to  those  in  operation  in  Jersey, 
prohibiting  the  importation  of  animals  other  than  for  slaughter 

(Fig.  21). 

Although  doubtless  related  particularly  in  respect  to  founda- 
tion stock,  considerable  difference  now  exists  between  the  Guern- 
sey and  the  Jersey.  Professor  Low,  writing  in  1841,  seems  to 
consider  the  cattle  from  the  two  islands  as  essentially  one  breed, 
yet  goes  on  to  describe  those  on  Guernsey  Island  as  larger  and 
more  highly  marked  with  orange  yellow  skin,  and  as  yielding  a 


ORIGIN 


63 


somewhat  more  yellow  milk  and  butter.  More  recent  investiga- 
tions strongly  support  the  theory  that  at  some  period  several  hun- 
dred years  ago  animals  which  were  the  true  descendants  of  the 
"  spotted  cattle  "  or  Simmenthaler,  of  Switzerland,  had  been 
introduced  as  breeding  stock  on  the  Island  of  Guernsey.  Not 
only  is  this  supported  by  the  larger  size,  quieter  disposition,  and 
more  yellow  secretions  of  the  Guernsey,  but  also  from  the  fact 
that  there  are  at  present  animals  possessing  characteristics 
similar  to  the  Guernsey  and  Simmenthaler  on  either  side  of  the 


■Hi 


Fig.  21. — May  King  of  Linda  Vista.     A  prize  winner  many  times.     (Courtesy  Jean  Du  Luth 
Farm,  Duluth,  Minn.) 

Rhine  River,  from  its  source  in  the  Alps  to  its  mouth  in  the 
North  Sea.  Much  of  the  stock  through  this  valley  is  frequently 
spoken  of  as  red  or  red  and  white,  but  it  is  recognized  by  the 
careful  observer  that  the  so-called  red  is  not  the  deep  cherry  red 
of  the  Shorthorn  and  Hereford,  but  rather  an  orange  red.  It  is 
most  natural  to  believe  that  as  the  people  crossed  the  mountains 
and  followed  the  river  northward  they  took  their  patient  and 
highly  prized  animal  servants  with  them.  It  would  then  be  but 
a  short  voyage  to  Guernsey  Island  which  lies  so  handily  in  the 
channel.     The  exact  facts  may  never  be  known,  however. 


64 


GUERNSEYS 


Although  the  Guernseys  were  taken  at  an  early  date  tc 
England  they  were  used  largely  by  the  nobility,  the  same  as  were 
the  Jerseys.  They  are  now  increasing  rapidly  in  popularity  in 
the  United  States.  They  are  not  to  be  found  in  any  considerable 
number  on  the  continent  of  Europe  or  in  foreign  countries. 

Home  Conditions. — Guernsey  Island  comprises  only  16,000 
acres,  of  which  approximately  12,000  acres  are  tillable,  the 
southern  end  of  the  island  beino-  a  hiffh  cliff.     This  island  rises 


Fia.  22. — Guernsey  cow,  Countess  Prue  437S5,  A.  R.  6909.  Champion  for  the  breed 
in  butter  fat  production.  Record  for  one  year  18,626.9  pounds  milk,  containing  1103.28 
pounds  fat,  equal  to  1379.16  pounds  of  butter,  80.0  per  cent  fat. 


abruptly  out  of  the  ocean  to  a  height  of  nearly  300  feet  and 
slopes  away  northward  for  a  distance  of  ten  miles.  The  system 
of  agriculture  here  must  be  adapted  to  the  comparatively  cooler 
soil  of  the  north  slope,  where  grass  and  vegetation  tend  to  grow 
less  rapidly  but  to  larger  size  and  greater  succulence.  It  is 
possible  that  this  has  had  something  to  do  with  the  larger  size  of 
the  8000  cattle  kept  on  the  island  (Fig.  22).  Truck  gardening 
with  a  liberal  use  of  green  houses  for  the  supply  of  fresh  vege- 


INTRODUCTION   TO   AMERICA 


65 


tables  to  the  English  market  comprises  a  large  part  of  the  crop- 
growing  business. 

Introduction  to  America— In  1818,  1825  and  1830, 
animals  known  as  Alderneys  were  brought  to  Pennsylvania. 
They  were  probably  imported  from  England.  Whether  these 
were  Jerseys  or  Guernseys  will  probably  never  be  known.  They 
were  known  as  Alderneys.  The  first  importation  to  be  kept 
pure  arrived  in  this  country  in  1850.  Most  of  the  importations 
were  made  from  18 SO  to  1890,  or  since  1900.     The  interests 


Fig.  23. — Highest  priced  Guernsey  bull.  Ultra  Select  47137.  Note  chest  depth,  mas- 
culinity and  straight,  strong  back  and  rump.  Owned  jointly  by  J.  L.  Hope,  Madison,  N.  J., 
and  W.  H.  Gratwick,  Linden,  N.  Y. 

of  the  breed  in  America  are  looked  after  by  the  American 
Guernsey  Cattle  Club,  which  was  organized  in  1877.  This 
organization  was  essentially  a  splitting  away  from  the  Amer- 
ican Jersey  Cattle  Club,  which,  previous  to  this  time,  had  been 
admitting  animals  of  either  breed  to  registry.  Over  50,000 
animals  have  now  been  registered,  of  which  about  one-third 
have  been  bulls.  The  distribution  of  Guernseys  in  America 
has  been  largely  in  the  northern  states,  few  going  south,  and 
fewer  still  going  into  Canada.  Massachusetts,  New  York,  and 
Pennsylvania  in  the  east,  and  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota  in  the 


66 


GUERNSEYS 


1J 


5  & 


S  o 

11 


BODY  CHARACTERISTICS  67 

middle  west,  are  the  states  chiefly  interested  in  this  breed. 
Wisconsin  may  be  said  to  be  the  western  center,  though  Minne- 
sota is  gradually  becoming  a  rival  for  this  honor  (Figs.  23  and 
24). 

Body  Characteristics. — Guernsey  cows  should  weigh,  when 
mature,  between  1050  and  1250  pounds,  and  bulls  from  1700  to 
2000  pounds.  Considerable  variation  in  size  now  exists,  how- 
ever, due  partly  to  the  recent  admission  into  this  country,  and 
their  registration  as  Guernseys,  of  the  cattle  which  for  centuries 
have  been  raised  on  the  third  largest  of  the  Channel  Islands, 
namely,  Alderney.  For  some  reason  the  mature  cattle  of 
Alderney  Island  are  not  as  large  even  as  the  Jersey  and  fall  very 
far  short  of  matching  the  ideal  Guernsey.  There  are  many  who 
believe  that  it  was  a  serious  blunder  to  admit  into  America 
these  small  cattle,  especially  to  admit  them  in  the  name  of  a 
much  larger  breed.  Many  breeders  and  practical  dairy  farmers, 
who  have  chosen  Guernseys  over  Jerseys,  have  done  so  because 
of  the  reputed  greater  size  of  the  former.  The  Guernsey 
naturally  carries  a  little  more  flesh  than  the  Jersey  and  is  not 
so  sensitive  to  the  cold.  To  reduce  the  scale  of  the  animals  now 
is  to  throw  them  into  the  Jersey  class  in  this  respect  where  they 
will  probably  be  easily  equalled  as  efficient  dairy  animals  by 
Jerseys  of  their  own  size.  The  color  of  the  Guernsey  is  orange- 
yellow  and  white,  in  large  patches.  The  shade  of  the  yellow 
varies  from  light  to  a  near  red.  Neither  extreme  is  desirable. 
The  temperament  of  the  Guernsey  is  particularly  agreeable. 
She  is  intelligent,  but  not  so  nervous,  not  so  affectionate  nor  so 
resentful  as  the  Jersey.  Neither  is  she  so  indifferent  as  the 
"  cold  blooded  "  Holstein.  Her  sunny  disposition  and  easy 
handling  habits  have  won  her  many  friends.  There  is  a  ten- 
dency, however,  for  individuals  and  families  of  this  breed  to 
lay  on  fat  too  readily. 

Calves  at  birth  should  weigh  from  sixty  to  eighty  pounds 
and  are  inclined  to  be  somewhat  delicate.  They  are  not  as 
easily  reared  as  the  young  of  either  the  Holstein  or  the  Ayrshire 
breed.  Heifers  mature  rapidly  and  unless  care  is  taken  are 
liable  to  begin  milking  too  early  for  best  growth. 


68 


GUERNSEYS 


Dairy  Characteristics. — The  Guernsey  is  outstandingly  a 
dairy  breed.  While  some  members  of  them,  carry  considerable 
flesh  and  fatten  at  a  sufficiently  good  rate,  they,  in  common  with 
other  dairy  breeds,  do  not  place  the  gain  either  in  the  place  or  in 
the  condition  to  be  most  highly  valuable.  Their  beef-making 
qualities  are  entirely  secondary.  As  a  whole,  the  cows  of  this 
breed  yield  rather  more  milk  than  the  Jerseys,  but  it  does  not 


Fig.  25. — Dairy  Maid  of  Pinehurst,  Guernsey  cow  that,  at  four  years  of  age,  produced 
in  one  year  17,285.3  pounds  of  milk  which  contained  910.67  pounds  butter  fat.  Note  deep 
body,  well-balanced  udder  and  large  milk  vein,  also  the  evidence  of  good  care.  Owned 
by  W.  W.  Marsh,  Waterloo,  Iowa. 

test  quite  as  high.  A  yield  of  6000  to  9000  pounds  of  milk  per 
year  is  not  at  all  unusual,  while  the  percentage  of  fat  ranges 
close  to  five.  Comparing  their  yield  with  the  Holstein,  they 
give  much  less  milk,  but  it  tests  more.  In  respect  to  their  milk- 
ing habits  as  in  other  points  the  Guernsey  occupies  a  position 
between  the  Jersey  and  the  Holstein,  but  rather  more  near  the 
Jersey.  One  value  of  Guernsey  milk  is  its  exceedingly  yellow 
color.  In  this  respect,  it  outclasses  all  other  breeds.  Not  in- 
frequently butter  made  from  Guernseys  on  full  grass  pasture  is 


ADVANCED  REGISTRY  69 

more  highly  colored  than  some  markets  desire.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  few  animals  of  Guernsey  blood  in  a  herd  of  Holsteins 
quite  naturally  increase  the  color  as  well  as  the  fat  content  and 
enhance  its  selling-  qualities.  The  length  of  the  lactation  period 
of  this  breed  varies  with  the  intensity  of  dairy  temperament  and 
with  their  feed  and  handling,  as  with  other  breeds. 

Adaptations. — There  are  a  few  places  where  the  qualities  of 
the  Guernsey  are  particularly  needed.  She  fills  rather  better 
than  any  other  dairy  breed,  the  needs  of  those  small  farmers  who 
do  most  of  their  own  work  and  who  have  but  a  moderate  quantity 
of  feed  to  use.  Their  problem  is  how  to  convert  a  moderate- 
sized  hay  stack  and  other  material  into  a  product  which  will 
bring  the  most  money.  Next  to  the  Jersey  the  Guernsey  con- 
verts the  largest  proportionate  amount  of  her  feed  into  milk 
fat  (Fig.  25),  but  since  the  modern  Jersey  is  rather  sensitive 
for  general  farm  life  in  the  northwestern  sections  of  the  United 
States,  the  Guernsey  is  being  largely  adopted  as  her  substitute. 
A  second  peculiar  place  is,  as  mentioned,  in  the  herds  of  some  of 
the  breeds  producing  a  very  white  milk  for  market. 

Advanced  Registry. — In  1901  a  system  of  advanced  registry 
was  adopted  and  though  the  test  period  at  first  covered  either 
seven  days  or  a  year  the  rules  were  soon  changed  to  recognize 
only  the  full  year  test.  Records  included  both  the  pounds  of 
milk  yielded  and  the  fat  produced  as  measured  by  the  Babcock 
test.  "  The  owner  of  the  cow  keeps  the  milk  records  in  detail 
throughout  the  year."  Once  every  month  an  official  represen- 
tative of  an  experiment  station  or  agricultural  college  visits  the 
f arm  to  confirm  the  yields  recorded  by  the  owner  and  to  test  the 
milk  produced  at  that  time.  A  two-year-old  cow  will  not  be 
admitted  into  advanced  registry  unless  she  produces  6000 
pounds  of  milk  and  250  pounds  of  fat.  Older  cows  are  required 
to  produce  3.65  pounds  of  milk  per  day  more,  up  to  five  years  of 
age,  and  for  each  day  past  two  years  of  age  at  the  time  of  begin- 
ning, one-tenth  of  a  pound  of  fat  additional  is  required.  Mature 
cows  are  admitted  upon  the  production  of  360  pounds  of  fat  per 
year.  Bulls  are  admitted  to  advanced  registry  when  two  or 
more  of  their  daughters  have  been  admitted. 


70  CUERNSfiYS 

It  was  the  record  made  by  the  Guernsey  cows  at  the  World's 
Fair  in  Chicago,  in  1893,  which  first  attracted  the  attention  of 
the  American  farmer  to  this  breed,  and  the  record  of  the  cow 
Mary  Marshall,  when  she  led  a  herd  of  50  cows  of  10  breeds  at 
the  model  dairy  at  the  Pan-American  Exposition  in  1901,  that 
fixed  it.  Since  that  time  many  handsome  records  have  been 
made  by  members  of  this  breed.  Particularly  to  be  noted  is  the 
record  recently  made  by  the  cow,  May  Rilma  (Fig.  2),  in 
producing  in  365  days,  19,G30.5  pounds  of  milk  which  contained 
1059.59  pounds  of  fat,  equivalent  to  1271.5  pounds  of  butter 
estimated  upon  the  basis  of  80  per  cent  fat.  And  later  the  cow 
Murne  Cowan  produced  in  one  year,  24,008  pounds  of  milk  con- 
taining 1098.18  pounds  of  fat,  equivalent  to  1317.82  pounds  of 
butter.  These  records  established  for  this  breed  the  world's  cham- 
pionship in  butter  production — held  for  about  a  year. 

The  following  are  the  best  official  yearly  records  made  up  to 
December  15,  1920,  by  this  breed  : 

Leading  Cores  in  the*  Several  Classes  of  the  Advanced  Register 
Class  A — Five   Years  ami  Over 

Lbs.  Milk  Lbs.B.F. 

Countess   Prue  43785   A.   R  6909 18626.9  1103.28 

Murne  Cowan   19597  A.  R.   1906   24008.0  1098.18 

May  Rilma  22761  A.  R.  1726    19673.0  1073.41 

Nella  Jay  4th  38233  A.  R.  3194   20709-9  1019.25 

Langwater   Nancy   27943    A.    R.    1826    1S783.5  1011.66 

Langwater  Hope  27946  A.  R.  1978   19882.0  1003.17 

Yeksa's  Tops  of  Gold's  Fannie  22362  A.  R   2394  .  .    19794.9  981.53 

My  Fancy  of  Falcon's  Flight  42999  A.  R.  7296  ....    1S214.7  979.11 

Spotswood  Daisy  Pearl  17696  A.  R.  790  18602.8  957.38 

Julie  of  the  Chene  30460  A.  R.  2752   17661.0  953.53 

Class  B — Four  and  One  Half  Years  to  Fire  Years 

Marshie  D.  V.  67481  A.  R.  6858 14729.9  915.05 

Dairymen  of  Pinehurst  24656  A.  R.  8443 17285.3  910.67 

Julie  of  the  Chene  30460  A  .R.  2752 15174.2  S27.26 

Langwater  Cleopatra  47043  A.  R.  4637 15364.7  792.51 

Lady   Lesbia  25142   A.   R.    1348 13582.8  787.03 

King's  Alberta  33788  A.  R.  2555 13954.9  785.61 

Pandora's  Valentine  of  Rich  Neck  27622  A.  R.  1742.  14341.6  784.22 

Glenanaar  of  the  Glen  23619  A.  R.  1907 16813.1  780.66 

Ina's  Grace  49724  A.  R.   7399 13502.5  775.04 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  71 

Summary  of  10,003  Advanced  Register  Records 

Records  Lbs.  Milk  Lbs.B.F.  Percent. 

Class  A     2971  10322.21  513.74  4.977 

Class  B 639  9816.07  491.03  4.999 

Class  C   789  9479.00  477.05  5.032 

Class  D 853  9179.80  464.32  5.058 

Class  E     1006  8456.65  427.35  5.053 

Class  F     119.5  8176.98  412.75  5.047 

Class  G 2580  7927.90  395.30  4.986 

10033  9068.27  454.06  5.005 


Scale   of  Points  for  Bulls 

Anatomical   Structure   Indicating   Dairy    Conformation 

Constitution   and  Symmetry. 

Head:  Clean  cut,  lean  face,  wide  mouth  and  muzzle,  wide  open  nos- 
trils,  and  full   bright  masculine  eye.  Broad   between   the 

eyes   and   dishing 8 

Horns :   Small  at  base,  medium  length,  not  too  spreading 1 

Neck :  Long  masculine  neck  with  strong  crest  and  clean  throat ...  4 
Withers:   Chine  rising  above  shoulder  blades  that  are  moderately 

thick   and    not    course 3 

Back :   Straight  from  withers  to  hips 8 

Hips :   Wide  apart,  not  too  prominent 2 

Rump :   Long,  continuing  with  level  of  the  back,  also  level  between 

hip    bones   and    pin    bones g 

Thurls :   Wide   apart   and   high 2 

Chest:  Wide  and  deep  at  heart,  least  depression  possible  back  of 

shoulders .  g 

Body :   Deep  and  long,  with  well-sprung  ribs  which  are  wide  apart. 

Thin    arching    flank 10 

Thighs:   Thin,  incurving  seen  from  side,  and  wide  apart  from  rear  2 
Legs:   Comparatively  short,  clean,  wide  apart  and  nearly  straight 

when  viewed  from  behind,  squarely  set  under  body 2 

Hide:   Loose  and  pliable,  and  not  thick,  with  oily  feeling 5 

Tail:  Neat  and  firm  setting  on,  long,  good  switch  1 

Rudimentary  Teats :  Teats  wide  apart  and  squarely  placed 3 


72 


GUERNSEYS 


Milk  Veins:  Long,  crooked,  branching  and  prominent,  with  large, 

deep    wells " 

Secretions  Indicating  Color  of  Product: 

Indicated  by  the  depth  of  yellow,  inclining  toward  orange,  of 
the  pigment  secretion  of  the  skin  on  the  body  generally 
and  especially  discernible  in  the  ear,  at  the  end  of  bone 
of  tail,  around  the  eye,  on  the  scrotum,  and  inside  of 
thighs,   and   at   base   of   horn.      Hoofs   and  horns   amber 


colored 


20 


Color  Markings :   A  shade  of  fawn  with  white  markings 5 

Size:    Mature   bulls   about    1600   lbs 6 

100 


Scale  of  Points  for  Cows 
Anatomical  Structure  Indicating  Dairy  Conformation, 

Constitution   and   Symmetry 

Head:    Clean  cut,   lean   face,  wide  mouth   and   muzzle  with  open 

nostrils,  full  bright  eye  with  gentle  expression.     Forehead 

long,  broad  between  the  eyes  and  dishing 6 

Horns :   Small  at  base,  medium  length,  not  too  spreading 1 

Neck :    Long  and   thin ;    clean   throat 2 

Withers:  Chine  rising  above  shoulder  blades  that  are  moderately 

thick   and   not   course 3 

Back :  Straight  from  withers  to  hips 8 

Hips :    Wide   apart,   not   too   prominent 2 

Rump:  Long,  continuing  with  level  of  the  back,  also  level  between 

hip  and  pin  bones 5 

Thurls :    Wide  apart  and   high 2 

Chest:    Wide,  and  deep   at  heart,   with    least  depression   possible 

back  of  the  shoulders 4 

Body:  Deep  and  long,  with  well-sprung  ribs  which  are  wide  apart. 

Broad  loin.     Thin   arching   flank 10 

Thighs:  Thin,  incurving  seen  from  side,  and  wide  apart  from  rear  2 
Legs:  Comparatively  short,  clean,  wide  apart  and  nearly  straight 

when  viewed  from  behind,  squarely  set  under  body 2 

Hide:  Loose  and  pliable,  and  not  thick,  with  oily  feeling 3 

Tail:    Neat  and   firm   setting  on,   long,   good   switch 1 

Udder :  Veins  prominent 2 

Attachment  to  body  long  and  wide 2 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  73 

Extending  well   forward 5 

Level  and  well   up   behind 4 

Teats  of  good  even  size,  well  apart  and  squarely  placed 5 

Milk  Veins:  Long,  crooked,  branching  and  prominent,  with  large 

deep  wells 4 

Secretions  Indicating  Color  of  Product : 

Indicated  by  depth  of  yellow,  inclining  toward  orange  of  the 
pigment  secretion  in  the  skin,  on  the  body  generally,  and 
especially  discernible  in  the  ear,  at  the  end  of  bone  of  tail, 
around  the  eye,  on  the  udder  and  teats  and  at  the  base  of 

horns.     Hoofs  and  horns  amber  colored 20 

Color  Markings :  A  shade  of  fawn  with  white  markings 2 

Size:   Mature  cows  about  1100  lbs.  in  milking  condition 5 

100 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Under  what  name  were  Guernsey  cattle  known  when   introduced  into 

England  and  America?     Why? 

2.  What  stock  probably  furnished  the  foundation  for  Guernsey  blood? 

3.  What  blood  element  probably  was  introduced  into  Guernsey  Island  but 

not  into  Jersey  Island? 

4.  Trace  the  Rhine  River  from  Switzerland  to  the  North  Sea. 

5.  Locate  the  Channel  Islands,  Guernsey  Island.     How   large  is  it  com- 

pared with  the  county  in  which  you  live? 

6.  What  is  the  color  of  a  well  marked  Guernsey?     What  undesirable  color 

occasionally  crops  out?     What  should  be  done  with  such  animals? 

7.  How  large  is  an  ideal  Guernsey  cow?     Bull? 

8.  What  is  the  disposition  of  a  Guernsey  cow? 

9.  What  should  be  looked  for  in  the  matter  of  calves? 

10.  How  much  milk  and  what  percentage  of  fat  ought  a  Guernsey  cow  to 

yield  ? 

11.  Compare  milk  yield  and  fat  grade  with  Holsteins  and  Jerseys. 

12.  What  may  be  said  regarding  the  color  of  Guernseys'  milk  and  butter? 

13.  What  seem  to  be  the  particular  places  into  which  the  Guernsey  cow  fits? 

14.  When  and  how  were  Guernseys  introduced  into  America? 

15.  What  states  are  now  most  interested  in  them  ? 

16.  When  and  under  what  conditions  was  the  advanced  registry  adopted 

for  this  breed  ? 

17.  What  are  the  milk  and  fat  requirement  for  admission  into  the  advanced 

registry  ? 

18.  Name  the  cows  having  the  five  highest  records. 

19.  How  much  did  each  produce? 

20.  What  is  the  record  in  milk  and  fat  and  percentage  of  fat  of  the  average 

of  all  the  advanced  registry  cows? 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  JERSEY 

The  Jersey  is  the  most  refined  present  representative  of  the 
race  of  cattle  which  developed  in  southern  Europe.  She  is 
probably  related  very  distantly  to  the  ancient  stock  of  Switzer- 
land. As  agricultural  development  moved  northward  it  is 
highly  probable  that  the  animals  common  in  the  south  were  taken 
northward  to  form  the  stock  of  ancient  Normandy  and  Brittany, 
and  that  these  in  turn  were  the  source  of  the  stock  for  Jersey 
Island,  which  place  became  the  home  of  the  breed  that  bears  its 
name.  Little  exact  information  is  obtainable  regarding  the 
manner  of  handling  or  the  characteristics  of  the  early  ancestors 
of  the  Jersey  breed. 

Home  Conditions. — Off  the  north  coast  of  France,  in  the 
English  Channel,  there  is  a  little  group  of  islands  known  as 
the  Channel  Islands.  In  order  of  size,  they  are  Jersey,  Guern- 
sey, Alderney,  and  Sark.  These  belonged  to  Normandy  before 
the  Conquest  of  England  when  William  the  Conqueror,  in  1065, 
made  his  famous  invasion.  The  sovereignty  over  the  islands  fell 
to  the  people  who  later  developed  the  British  Empire.  Thus 
we  find  that  the  islands,  which  lie  so  close  to  the  French  coast 
and  are  peopled  largely  by  folk  of  French  characteristics  and 
with  the  French  language,  still  owe  allegiance  to  England.  Their 
affiliation,  however,  is  unique  and  permits  of  certain  liberties 
in  respect  to  self-government  which  are  enjoyed  by  few  of  the 
provinces. 

In  1763  and  again  in  1789  laws  were  passed  in  Jersey  Island 
prohibiting  the  importation  of  cattle  except  for  slaughter.  The 
law  has  been  modified  slightly  a  few  times  since,  but  has  been  in 
force,  and  been  enforced  for  more  than  a  century  and  a  half 
since,  and  is  still  looked  upon  as  an  exceedingly  valuable  law.  It 
was  done  to  safeguard  the  health  of  the  cattle  on  the  island, 
but  has  been  of  even  greater  value  in  preserving  the  purity  of 
blood  and  permitting  the  development  of  one  of  the  most  valuable 
breeds  of  cattle  in  the  world. 
74 


IMPROVEMENT  FROM  WITHIN 


75 


The  island  itself  is  only  eleven  miles  long,  by  nine  miles 
wide.  It  has  a  total  area  of  about  39,500  acres,  of  which 
25,000  are  tillable.  The  population  of  60,000  is  engaged 
largely  in  truck  gardening,  making  a  specialty  of  early  potatoes. 
The  cow,  however,  has  been  given  much  attention  and  is  an 
important  source  of  revenue.  There  are  about  10,000  cows  on 
the  island,  or  one  for  every  two  and  one-half  acres  of  cultivated 
land. 


sm. 


Fig.  26.— Imp.  Oxford  Majesty 
Note  strong  back,  rugged  build  yet 
Horse  Farms,  Paoli,  Pa.) 


A  champion 
conformity  t 


h  on  Jersey  Island  and  in  An  eri<a. 
he  dairy  type.     (Owned  by  White 


IMPROVEMENT  FROM  WITHIN 

Early  writers  on  agricultural  topics  mention  the  cows  of  the 
island  as  being  very  ununiform  in  every  respect;  some  very 
beefy;  some  were  flat  and  with  but  poor  constitutions,  while 
yet  others  were  fairly  symmetrical  dairy  cows. 

It  is  evident,  however,  that  the  essential  merit  of  the  stock 
was  recognized,  since  improvement  was  sought  by  selection  within 
the  blood  rather  than  by  introduction  of  such  outside  elements 
as  were  obtainable  on  the  continent  (Fig.  26). 

Systematic  improvement  began  in  1834  when  a  score  card 


76  THE  JERSEY 

was  adopted  to  be  used  at  the  second  annual  fair  held  by  Jersey 
Royal  Agricultural  and  Horticultural  Society.  This  is  the  first 
record  of  the  application  of  the  score  card  system  in  judging. 
The  scale  of  points  has  been  modified  from  time  to  time,  but 
has  served  well  to  bring  about  uniformity  and  refinement  com- 
bined with  useful  characteristics. 

The  plan  of  registration  on  the  island  is  unique.  "  Cows 
are  registered  as  pedigree  stock  and  foundation  stock;  bulls  as 
pedigree  stock  only."  Within  twenty-four  hours  after  a  cow 
drops  a  calf  the  owner  must  notify  a  representative  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  who  must  satisfy  himself  that  the 
calf  in  question  was  actually  born  from  the  cow  claimed  by  the 
owner  to  be  its  mother.  A  certificate  is  then  issued  showing 
the  birth  of  the  calf.  This  certificate,  together  with  one  from 
the  owner  of  the  sire  of  the  calf,  is  then  filed  with  the  secretary 
or  the  registrar.  This  is  called  preliminary  registration.  Ex- 
aminations are  frequently  held  for  the  qualifications  of  these 
registered  cattle.  If  the  young  animals  are  growing  into  form 
such  as  to  indicate  future  high  quality  they  are  passed  as  "  com- 
mended "  or  "  highly  commended,"  and  those  commended  ani- 
mals are  at  two  years  of  age  entered  in  full  registry  under  the 
number  and  name  by  which  they  may  be  imported  to  America 
and  transferred  to  the  American  Jersey  Cattle  registry.  Re- 
jected animals  may  be  entered  in  examination  later  and,  if  satis- 
factory, be  approved. 

In  the  case  of  males,  the  dam  must  be  shown  and  her  qual- 
ities are  taken  together  with  those  of  the  little  bull,  and  he  is 
either  rejected  or  passed,  according  to  quality  of  both  (Fig.  27). 
An  individual  breeder  is  not  compelled  to  use  fully  registered 
sires,  but  the  pressure  has  been  so  strong  that  most  of  them  have 
complied  with  the  judgment  of  the  committee  of  five;  have  dis- 
posed of  the  rejected  animals ;  and  bred  to  the  approved.  This 
system  has  certainly  developed  a  wonderfully  uniform  and 
beautiful  breed.  On  the  island  little  attention  was  paid  to 
the  making  of  butter  records,  further  than  one  day  tests  at  fairs, 
until  1912,  when  milk  and  butter  record  keeping,  very  much  as 
the  Registry  of  Merit  in  America,  was  instituted. 


BODY  CHARACTERISTICS 


77 


The  animal  has  meant  much  in  the  development  of  Jersey 
Island,  and  is  still  a  potent  factor  in  its  industrial  affairs.  The 
Jersey,  like  the  Holstein  cow,  is  pastured  at  the  end  of  a  long 
rope.  The  forage  in  Jersey,  however,  is  more  scanty  and 
richer  in  character  than  it  is  in  Holland.  This  may  be  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  island  is  raised  nicely  above  sea  level  and  that 
the  north  side  is  considerably  higher  and  more  abrupt  than  the 
southern,  thus  forming  a  southern  slope  which  warms  very 
rapidly  in  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.     The  Jersey  at  home  is  a 


Flo.   27. — The  champion  Jersey  bull,   Nobles  Eminent  Lad. 
Talfurries,  Texas.) 


(Owned  by 


pet,  is  handled  very  largely  by  the  women,  and  is  carefully  fed 
on  grass,  parsnips,  carrots,  and  odds  and  ends  from  the  garden. 
Comparatively  small  amounts  of  grain  are  fed. 

Body  Characteristics. — The  color  of  the  Jersey  is  not  looked 
upon  as  an  essential  feature  of  the  breed.  Consequently,  varia- 
tion is  found.  Some  are  of  a  creamy  white,  while  a  few  are 
found  that  have  large  yellow  or  orange  spots  in  a  field  of  white, 
quite  similar  to  the  Guernseys.  The  majority,  especially  in 
America,  have  almost  solid  color  of  varying  shades,  from  a  light 


78  THE  JERSEY 

silvery  gray  or  fawn,  through  various  shades  of  rich  red,  to  a 
seal  brown,  almost  black.  In  size  the  Jersey  is  one  of  the  small- 
est of  the  dairy  breeds  (Fig.  28).  Mature  cows  should  weigh 
in  the  neighborhood  of  900  pounds,  while  the  bulls  may  vary 
between  1300  and  1700.  The  Jersey  calf  at  birth  weighs  from 
50  to  80  pounds,  and  though  healthy,  is  quite  a  baby  to  raise. 
The  Jersey  heifer  matures  at  a  very  early  age.  Care  must 
be  taken  to  prevent  too  early  breeding.  The  fact  that  they 
will  breed  early  is  sometimes  an  advantage,  however,  in  that 
there  is  a  shorter  period  of  unprofitable  feeding.  The  intelli- 
gence of  the  Jersey  cow  is  remarkable,  and  her  affectionate  qual- 
ities endear  her  to  those  who  love  stock.  This  same  quality, 
however,  is  a  disadvantage  when  she  is  in  the  hands  of  one  who 
is  rough  or  boisterous,  or  generally  unfriendly.  When  roughly 
handled  the  Jersey  is  more  likely  to  resent  the  treatment  than  a 
cow  of  less  sensitive  organization.  Thus  we  have  conspicuous 
examples  of  cows  which  did  exceedingly  poorly  under  one  man- 
agement that  proved  to  be  wonderful  producers  in  the  hands  of 
another. 

Dairy  Characteristics. — The  Jersey  is  the  most  highly 
specialized  dairy  cow  in  America.  She  is  not  conspicuous  for 
the  quantity  of  milk  (Fig.  28),  but  rather  for  the  rich  quality 
of  it.  The  average  fat  test  of  the  milk  of  this  breed  is  not  far 
from  five  and  one-half  per  cent,  while  many  individuals  produce 
milk  with  as  high  as  six  and  even  seven  per  cent  fat.  During 
the  earlier  days  of  dairying  the  Jersey  was  known  as  the  cow 
for  the  "  butter  dairy."  Her  milk  was  so  rich  that  only  sixteen 
to  nineteen  pounds  would  be  required  to  make  a  pound  of  butter, 
whereas  twenty-five  or  more  pounds  of  the  milk  of  other  breeds 
would  be  required  to  equal  it.  IsTot  only  is  it  rich  in  fat,  but  the 
globules  are  comparatively  large  in  size.  This  fact  facilitates 
quick  and  thorough  creaming  by  gravity.  There  will  be  less 
fat  wasted  in  the  skim  milk,  under  the  old  system,  with  a  Jersey 
than  with  breeds  yielding  smaller  fat  globules.  The  condition 
still  remains  but  its  importance  is  now  negligible  when  the 
centrifugal  cream  separator  is  used.  The  milk  of  the  Jersey 
produces  cheese  of  very  rich  quality,  even  more  fatty  than  the 


INTRODUCTION  TO  AMERICA 


79 


trade  generally  cares  to  pay  for.  A  small  quantity,  however, 
added  to  the  milk  of  the  Holstein  has  a  marked  improving  effect 
in  either  cheese  or  market  milk.  The  fact  that  the  globules  of 
fat  are  one-nine-thousandth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  instead  of 
one-twelve-thousandth  of  an  inch  need  not  deter  any  one  from 
choosing  such  milk  as  an  infant  food.  The  percentage  and  total 
quantity  of  fat  fed  a  child  is  so  much  more  important  than  the 


Fig.  28. — Sophie  19th  of  Hood  Farm.  189,758.  Long-distance  champion  Jersey  cow, 
completing  her  ninth  official  year's  record  with  a  production  of  10,360.9  pounds  of  milk, 
506  pounds  fat.  Holds  nine-year  record  of  110,938  pounds  milk,  6,354.6  pounds  fat,  equal 
to  7,943.2  pounds  or  nearly  four  tons  of  butter.  Bred,  owned  and  tested  by  Hood  Farm, 
Lowell,  Mass. 

size  of  the  fat  globule  that  the  size  may  generally  be  neglected 
entirely.     ( See  chapter  on  Ilolsteins  for  more  of  this. ) 

Introduction  to  America — Jersey  and  Guernsey  cattle  were 
taken  to  England  at  an  early  date  and  there  known  as  Alderney 
cattle,  since  they  had  come  from  the  Alderney  or  Channel  group 
of  islands.  As  early  as  1815  cows  were  imported  from  the 
Island  of  Alderney,  and  in  1818,  and  again  in  1825,  animals  of 
this  blood  were  brought  to  America,  either  from  England  or,  less 
likely,  from  the  Islands.     These  animals  were  known  as  Alder- 


80  THE  JERSEY 

neys,  but  their  blood  was  not  kept  pure.  They  furnished  the 
foundation  stock,  however,  for  much  of  the  region  in  the 
southern  states.  In  1851  a  few  Jerseys  were  imported  into 
Massachusetts  and  in  1868  a  few  animals  were  brought  to  Mon- 
treal, Canada.  From  these  importations  have  descended  many 
of  the  most  famous  producers  in  this  country.  From  about  1870 
to  1890  importations  were  numerous,  then  for  a  period  few 
were  brought  over.  At  the  present  time  there  are  several  impor- 
tant animal  importations.  The  interests  of  the  breed  in  America 
are  looked  after  by  the  American  Jersey  Cattle  Club.  It  was 
tunned  in  1S68.  There  have  now  been  registered  in  America 
about  300,000  Jerseys,  of  which  one-quarter  were  bulls.  Jerseys 
are  now  to  be  found  in  every  state  (Fig.  30)  and  in  practically 
every  county  of  most  of  the  states.  The  Jersey  has  also  been 
introduced  into  most  of  the  civilized  countries,  but  is  most 
popular  in  England  and  America. 

Island  Versus  American  Type. — It  was  comparatively  early 
in  the  improvement  of  the  Jersey  breed  that  representatives  were 
first  imported  to  America.  These  were  for  the  most  part  handled 
by  practical  lovers  of  the  breed.  Descendants  from  these  early 
importations  have  been  formed  into  a  more  or  less  well-defined 
type  usually  spoken  of  as  the  ''American  type,"  because  developed 
in  this  country.  These  cows  are  comparatively  large,  straight, 
almost  coarse,  and  decidedly  plain,  compared  with  the  present 
highly  finished  animal  of  the  island.  The  majority  of  the  high 
records  for  production  in  this  country  are  held  by  representatives 
of  the  so-called  American  type.  The  island  type  of  Jersey  is 
100  to  200  pounds  lighter  in  weight ;  very  much  more  refined  in 
texture  and  feature,  and  is  now  marked  by  having  a  compara- 
tively short  head  with  dished  face.  These  animals  are  more 
symmetrical  than  those  of  older  American  breeding,  not  only  in 
top  line,  but  also  in  udder  development.  While  many  of  the 
large  records  are  held  by  the  American  type  it  does  not  in  itself 
prove  that  this  type  is  essentially  more  productive  or  econom- 
ical. Animals  of  recent  importation  have  gone  more  largely 
into  the  herds  of  wealthy  owners  who  in  the  past  were  not  pri- 
marily interested  in  large  milk  records  or  economy  of  milk  pro- 


ISLAND  VERSUS  AMERICAN  TYPE 


81 


Fio.  29. — Financial  Daisy.     A  champion  American  type  Jersey  cow.     Note  deep  body,  well- 
balanced  udder,  tortuous  milk  veins.     (Owned  by  White  Horse  Farm,  Paoli,  Pa.) 
Fig.  30. — Bright  Princess  Jolly  Girl.    A  prize-winning  Island  type  Jersey  cow  belonging  to 
Geo.  T.   Slade,  St.   Paul,   Minn. 


82  THE  JERSEY 

duction.  This  has  left  the  field  comparatively  open  to  the 
smaller  owner  who  is  more  likely  to  be  a  practical  milk  producer. 
There  are  likewise  a  larger  number  of  the  American  type  of 
animals  available  for  contest  purposes  (Fig.  29). 

Extremes  of  these  two  types  are  almost,  if  not  quite,  as  far 
apart  in  character  as  are  the  modern  Jersey  and  the  refined 
Guernsey.  Certain  it  is  that  the  extremes  of  the  two  types 
should  not  usually  be  mated,  for  the  same  reason  that  the  Jersey 
and  the  Holstein  should  seldom  be  crossed.     They  are  too  unlike. 

While  the  American  type  is  thought  to  be  possessed  of 
greater  constitution  than  the  more  highly  refined  island  type, 
one  must  be  careful  that  hasty  conclusions  are  not  drawn  in 
the  matter. 

Constitution  a  Relative  Term. — Constitution  is  the  ability 
of  the  animal  to  do  its  life  work.  Constitution  is,  in  part,  the 
relation  between  the  power  of  the  heart  of  the  animal  to  pump 
blood  throughout  its  system  and  the  power  of  its  lungs  to  purify 
the  blood,  compared  to  the  resistance  which  the  blood  is  to  meet 
in  coursing  through  the  body.  A  large  strong  heart  working 
against  a  body  filled  with  fat  might  be  strained  far  more  than  a 
heart  of  only  two-thirds  the  actual  power  working  in  a  body 
where  the  arteries  are  not  closely  surrounded  by  fat  but  are 
elastic  and  can  expand  with  every  throb.  With  this  view  of  the 
matter  we  are  not  surprised  to  see  the  angular  little  Jersey  work- 
ing nervily  and  profitably  until  16  and  even  20  years  of  age. 
This  matter  is  even  better  illustrated  in  the  case  of  horses.  The 
large,  well-rounded  horse  is  often  outclassed  at  continued  hard 
work  by  one  of  a  thinner,  nervier  make-up. 

Beef  Characteristics. — This  breed  has  never  made  any  claim 
to  true  beef-making  qualities,  nor  even  yet  has  there  been  any 
tendency  to  make  of  it  a  so-called  dual  purpose  breed.  Genera- 
tions of  selecting  for  dairy  purposes  have  produced  in  the  Jersey 
an  animal  wonderfully  well  adapted  to  milk  production.  It  will 
fatten  readily  enough,  but  does  not  place  the  gain  where  it  will 
be  most  valuable,  nor  yet  is  the  meat  of  quite  so  high  quality  as 
that  produced  by  a  breed  which  has  for  generations  been  trained 
for  beef  production.     The  fat  of  Jersey  beef  is  likely  to  be  rather 


IMPROVEMENTS  NEEDED  g3 

too  highly  colored  for  most  trade,  and  is  placed  in  patches  and 
layers  outside  of  the  muscle  rather  than  being  finely  distributed 
through  the  tissue  as  in  the  case  of  high-type  beef  animals.  To 
consider  the  Jersey  cow  as  worthless  for  beef,  however,  is 
incorrect.     (See  page  43.) 

Adaptations. — As  a  breed  the  Jersey  will  produce  butter 
fat  more  cheaply  per  pound  than  any  other  breed.  This  is  due 
to  several  conditions. 

First,  she  will  consume  more  feed  in  proportion  to  her  size 
than  will  the  larger  breeds. 

Second,  the  solid  matter  of  her  milk  carries  a  much  higher 
percentage  of  fat  and  a  less  proportion  of  non-fat.  When  butter 
fat  is  worth  in  the  neighborhood  of  thirty  cents  a  pound,  the 
sugar  and  casein  of  milk  are  worth  four  and  a  half  to  six  cents 
a  pound.  Naturally,  therefore,  that  animal  which  converts  her 
feed  into  a  substance  with  a  higher  percentage  of  the  more  valu- 
able materials  will  have  the  advantage  over  one  which  produces 
so  much  cheap  milk  solids.  This  being  the  case,  we  must  expect 
that  on  systematic  dairy  farms  where  the  production  of  butter  or 
cream  is  the  first  aim  of  the  dairy  and  where  kindness  and  com- 
fortable care  can  be  assured,  the  Jersey  cow  will  be  found  rather 
more  profitable  than  some  other  breeds. 

Third,  the  Jersey  is  particularly  well  adapted  to  meet  the 
climatic  and  feed  conditions  of  our  southern  states,  the  common 
stock  of  which  is  already  largely  of  the  Jersey  blood.  It  would 
seem  that  she  might  well  become  the  common  cow  for  the  southern 
farmer,  although  the  small  size  of  the  Jersey  need  not  deter  the 
northern  dairyman  from  keeping  her,  for  good  buildings  can 
make  summer  temperatures  at  any  season. 

A  fourth  place  for  the  Jersey  is  as  a  town  cow.  She  con- 
sumes less  total  feed,  occupies  less  space  than  other  breeds,  and 
yields  enough  milk,  and  that  of  the  highest  quality. 

Improvements  Needed. — Aside  from  the  common  imper- 
fection of  form,  such  as  sloping  rump  (Fig.  31),  and  of  function, 
such  as  being  occasionally  only  moderately  valuable  as  dairy 
animals,  the  present  status  of  the  Jersey  is  important,  especially 
because  of  the  two  more  or  less  well  defined  but  radically  differ- 


84  THE  JERSEY 

ent  types  of  pure  bred,  registered  Jerseys  on  the  market,  the 
crossing  of  which  is  liable  to  produce  very  unsymmetrical  and 
otherwise  undesirable  animals.  Eelief  from  the  situation  can- 
not well  take  place  until  the  breeders  settle  upon  seme  type  and 
size  as  the  goal  toward  which  to  select  and  breed.  At  present 
some  Jersey  breeders  contend  for  a  small,  beautiful  animal  and 
others  for  a  larger,  less  nervous,  even  though  coarser,  beast.  This 
inability  to  get  together  on  the  matter  has  prevented  the  extension 


Fig.  31. — A  poor  rump  and  fore  udder  but  a  good  producer  for  all  that.     Rosalind  of  Old 
Basing. 

of  the  Jersey  to  as  wide  a  field  as  might  otherwise  have  been 
claimed  by  it. 

Testing  System. — In  1884  the  system  of  making  seven-day 
tests  was  inaugurated  for  the  Jerseys.  These  were  made  in 
private,  and  later  oath  was  taken  as  to  correctness.  Mature 
cows  producing  fourteen  pounds  or  more  of  butter  per  week 
were  found  and  said,  thereafter,  to  be  in  the  fourteen-pound  list. 
These  private  records,  like  those  reported  for  the  Holstein  cows 


RECORDS 


85 


during  the  earlier  clays  of  the  breed  in  this  country,  were  prob- 
ably correct,  but  people  naturally  had  little  confidence  in  them. 
In  1903  the  "  Register  of  Merit  "  was  established  and  the  rules 
so  changed  as  to  require  a  verification  of  the  yield,  by  means  of 
the  Babcock  test.  The  advanced  records  of  Jerseys  are  now 
being  supervised  by  representatives  of  the  Agricultural  College 
or  Experiment  Stations  of  the  various  states  and,  like  the  records 
of  the  advanced  registry  of  the  Holstein  and  Guernsey,  are  as 


Fig.  32. — A    cnampion    Jersey   heifer,   eighteen   months   old.      Cupid's   Noble    Fontaine. 
(Owned  by  Geo.  T.  Slade,  St.  Paul,  Minn.) 

nearly  correct  and  free  from  error  as  can  well  be  made.  The 
Jersey  requirements  for  registry  of  merit  are  the  same  as  the 
Guernsey. 

Records. — Although  the  Jersey  has  been  perfected  until  she 
is  a  beautiful  and  affectionate  animal,  her  production  has  not 
been  overlooked.  As  a  breed  the  Jersey  is  a  wonderfully  econom- 
ical and  constant  producer  (Fig.  32). 

"  The  records  of  other  breeds  than  the  Jersey  are  sometimes 
computed  on  the  basis  of  butter  eighty  per  cent  fat,  instead  of 


3b  THE  JERSEY 

eighty-five  per  cent  Eighty  per  cent  fat  is  the  legal  standard 
of  butter  in  the  states  of  California,  Colorado,  Iowa,  Kansas, 
New  Hampshire,  Ohio,  South  Dakota  and  Utah.  For  the  pur- 
poses of  comparison  with  claims  made  on  behalf  of  cows  of  other 
breeds,  a  list  of  the  Jersey  pacemakers  is  appended  hereto  with 
yields  computed  on  the  basis  of  eighty  per  cent  fat  in  the  butter." 

Ten  Highest  Jersey  Milk  Records,  All  Ages 

Name  and  H.  R.  No.  Milk  Fat  Age 

Passport   219742    19694.8  839.20  7-11 

Eminent's  Bess  209719    18782.9  962.80  7-2 

Lass  40th  of  Hood  Farm  223462   .  .  18661.4  854.90  5-10 

Melia's  Rilma  249446  18255.8  793.44  11-10 

Lucky  Farce  298177 18014.0  938.75  8-3 

Rochette's  Princess  253833 17891.1  933.34  8-1 

Poppy's  Dortha  3-78520    17804.1  994.25  3-4 

Lass  66th  of  Hood  Farms  271896..  17793.7  910.60  3-9 

Successful   Queen  278743    17580.9  847.86  7-6 

Sophie  19th  of  Hood  Farm  189748. .  17557.7  999.10  7-11 

Eight   Highest   Jersey   Fat    Records,   All   Ages 

Plain   Mary   268026    15256.1  1040.08  8-11 

Vive  La  France  319616 15271.8  1039.29  5-11 

Vive    La    France    319616     14925.7  1031.64  4-7 

Sophie's  Agnes  296759 16212.6  1000.07  6-1 

Sophie  19th  of  Hood  Farm  189748.  '17557.8  999.10  7-11 

Poppy's  Dortha  378520 17804.1  994.25  3-4 

Spermfield  Owl's  Eva  193934   16457.4  993.30  8-7 

Old  Man's  Darling  2nd  319617   .  . .  14631.6  983.68  4-5 

It  should  be  observed  that  although  the  quantity  of  milk 
yielded  is  far  less  than  is  shown  in  an  earlier  chapter  for  Hol- 
steins,  the  quantity  of  butter  fat  far  more  nearly  approaches  the 
production  of  the  other  breed.  Neither  is  the  total  quantity 
produced  the  criterion,  since  the  cost  of  production  is  quite  as 
important  as  the  yield.  The  Jersey  may  be  said  to  be  the  con- 
verse of  the  Holstein  in  the  matter  of  milk  production.  The 
Jersey  produces  a  comparatively  small  quantity  of  the  richest 
milk,  while  the  Holstein  produces  the  largest  amount  of  com- 
paratively "  lean  "  milk. 

Scale  of  Points. — The  scale  of  points  for  cows  now  in  use 
for  the  perfecting  of  the  breed  was  adopted  in  1915  and  follows : 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  the  Jersey  Cow 

Counts 
Dairy  Temperament  and  Constitution. 

Head  7: 

A — Medium  size,   lean;   face  dished;    broad  between  the 

eyes;  horns  medium  size  incurving   3 

B — Eyes  full  and  placid;  ears  medium  size,  fine,  carried 
alert;    muzzle   broad,   with   wide   open   nostrils   and 

muscular   lips ;    jaw   strong   4 

Neck  4: 

Thin,  rather  long,  with  clean  throat,  neatly  joined  to  head 

and    shoulders   4 

Body  37: 

A — Shoulders  light,  good  distance  through  from  point  to 
point,  but  thin  at  withers ;  chest  deep  and  full  between 
and  just  back  of  forelegs   5 

B — Ribs  amply  sprung  and  wide  apart,  giving  wedge 
shape,  with  deep,  large  abdomen,  firmly  held  up,  with 
strong   muscular   development   10 

C — Back    straight    and    strong,    with    prominent    spinal 

processes ;    loins    broad    and    strong   5 

D — Rump  long  to  tail-setting  and  level  from  hip-bones  to 

rump    bones  6 

E — Hip  bones  high  and  wide  apart   3 

F — Thighs   flat  and  wide   apart,  giving  ample  room   for 

udder 3 

G — Legs  proportionate  to  size  and  of  fine  quality,  well 
apart,  with  good  feet  and  not  to  weave  or  cross  in 
walking    2 

H — Hide   loose   and  mellow   2 

I — Tail  thin,  long,  with  good  switch,  not  coarse  at  setting- 
on      1 

Mammary  Development 
Udder  26: 

A — Large,   flexible  and  not  fleshy   6 

B — Broad,    level    or    spherical,    not    deeply    cut    between 

teats     4 

C — Fore  udder  full  and  well  rounded,  running  well  for- 
ward of  front  teats 10 

D — Rear  udder  well  rounded  and  well  out  and  up  behind.  . .       6 
Teats  8: 

Of'  good    and   uniform    length    and    size,    regularly    and 

squarely     placed  8 


87 


Student's 
Score 


88 


THE  JERSEY 


Scale   of   Points   for  Judging    the   Jersey    Cow    (continued) 


Student's 
Counts      Score 


Milk  Veins  4: 

Large,    long,    tortuous    and    elastic,    entering    large    and 

numerous  orifices 4 

Size  4: 

Mature  cows,  800  to  1000  pounds   4 

General  Appearance  10: 

A  symmetrical  balancing  of  all  the  parts,  and  a  proportion 
of  parts  to  each  other,  depending  on  size  of  animal, 
with  the  general  appearance  of  a  high-class  animal, 
with  capacity  for  feed  and  productiveness  at  pail-. ...      10 


Total 


100 


Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  Jersey  Bulls         Co     . 
Head  10: 

A — Broad,  medium  length ;  face  dished ;  narrow  between 

horns;  horns  medium  in  size  and  incurving   5 

B — Muzzle  broad,  nostrils  open,  eyes  full  and  bold;  entire 

expression  one  of  vigor,  resolution  and  masculinity   ....   5 
Neck  7: 

Medium    length   with    full    crest    at   maturity,    clean    at 

throat 7 

A — Shoulders  full  and  strong,  good  distance  through  from 

point  to  point,  with  well  defined  withers;  chest  deep 

and  full  between  and  just  back  of  forelegs   15 

B — Barrel  long,  of  good  depth  and  breadth,  with  strong, 

rounded,  well  sprung  ribs   15 

C — Back  straight  and  strong   5 

D — Rump  of  good  length  and  proportion  to  size  of  body 

and  level  from  hip  bones  to  rump  bones   7 

E — Loins  broad  and  strong;  hips  rounded,  and  of  medium 

width   compared   with   female   7 

F — Thighs  rather  flat,  well  cut  up  behind,  high  arched 

flank     .' 8 

G — Legs  proportionate  to  size  and  of  fine  quality,   well 

apart  with  good  feet  not  to  weave  or  cross  in  walking      5 
Rudimentary  Teats  2 : 

Well    placed  2 

Hide  2: 

Loose    and   mellow   2 

Tail  2: 

Thin,    long,    reaching   the    hock,    with    good    switch,    not 

coarse  or  high  at  setting  on   2 


Student'i 
Score 


QUESTIONS  89 

Scale  of  Points  for  Judging   Jersey   Bulls    (continued) 

Student's 
Counts       Score 

Size  5: 

Mature  bulls,  1200  to  1500  pounds   5 

General  Appearance  15: 

Thoroughly  masculine  in  character,  with  harmonious 
blending  of  the  parts  to  each  other;  thoroughly  ro- 
bust, and  such  an  animal  as  in  a  herd  of  wild  cattle 
would  likely  become  master  of  the  herd  by  the  law 
of  natural  selection  and  survival  of  the  fittest   15 

Total   100 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  did  the  Jerseys  originate  as  a  breed?     Upon  what  foundation 

stock? 

2.  What  law  was  most  valuable  in  establishing  this  breed? 

3.  How  large  is  Jersey  Island? 

4.  Where  is  it  located?     Find  it  on  the  map. 

5.  For  what  products,  other  than  cows,  is  the  Island  of  Jersey  noted? 

6.  How  was  improvement  in  the  breed  brought  about? 

7.  What  is  the  present  plan  of  registration  of  cattle  on  the  island  ? 

8.  Tell  how  the  Jersey  on  the  island  is  handled  and  fed. 

9.  What  is  the  color  of  pure-bred  Jerseys  ? 

10.  What  are  the  average  sizes  of  cow  and  bull? 

11.  How  large  is  a  Jersey  calf  at  birth? 

12.  What  may  be  said  of  the  intelligence  and  the  affection  of  the  Jersey? 

13.  When  may  these  good  qualities  prove  a  disadvantage? 

14.  What  quality  of  milk  do  Jerseys  produce? 

15.  How   was   the  richness  of  Jersey  stated   before  the   Babcock  test  was 

invented  ? 

16.  Under  what  conditions  may  the  larger  fat  globule  be  of  value? 

17.  When  were  Jerseys  first  imported  into  America? 

18.  How  widely  distributed  is  this  breed  at  the  present  time? 

19.  What  is  meant  by  American  type  Jersey? 

20.  How  do  they  differ  from  the  Island  type  Jersey  ? 

21.  What  precaution  should  be  taken  in  mating  Jerseys? 

22.  What  is  constitution? 

23.  Why  can  Jerseys  produce  butter  fat  cheaper  per  pound  than  any  other 

breed  of  cows  in  America? 

24.  What  are  her  particular  adaptations? 

25.  What  improvement  is  most  needed  in  the  Jersey  breed? 

26.  What  is  the  "register  of  merit"? 

27.  What  is  the  best  year's  record  for  a  Jersey?     What  cow  holds  it? 

28.  Compare  the  Jersey  and  Holstein  breeds. 


CHAPTER  XI 
AYRSHIRES 

Origin. — In  comparison  with  the  Holstein  and  Brown  Swiss, 
which  are  virtually  the  pure  descendants  of  the  cattle  of  an- 
tiquity, or  even  with  the  Guernsey  and  Jersey  which  are  modi- 
fications of  the  more  or  less  mixed  foundation  stock,  the  Ayrshire 
breed  of  cattle  may  be  said  to  be  "  man  made."  It  is  the 
youngest  dairy  breed  of  importance.  In  the  Shire  or  County  of 
Ayr,  southwest  Scotland,  there  lived  in  the  early  eighteenth 
century  a  number  of  farmers  who  seemed  to  have  become  con- 
vinced that  their  stock  would  admit  of  improvements,  and  set 
about  to  do  it.  The  animals  of  1750  are  described  as  undersized, 
ill-fed,  irregular,  and  as  producing  but  little  milk.  They  were, 
however,  extremely  hardy.  They  were  undoubtedly  the  domes- 
ticated representatives  of  the  aboriginal  wild  cow  of  that  region 
and  related  to  the  West  Highlands  in  that  respect.  In  the 
mountains  of  Wales  there  are  still  to  be  found  small  black,  ex- 
tremely hardy,  wild  cattle  and  in  England  there  are  still  a  few 
specimens  of  an  aboriginal  wild  white  cow.  During  the  latter 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century  there  was  a  strong  movement 
towards  the  improvement  of  all  neat  cattle.  These  cattle  were 
improved  largely  by  crossing  in  other  better  developed  breeds. 
Just  when  certain  bloods  were  introduced  is  not  accurately 
recorded,  but  it  was  evidently  the  early  introduction  of  the  blood 
of  the  old  Teeswater  breed,  later  known  as  Durhams,  and  still 
later  more  widely  known  as  Shorthorns,  that  gave  scale  to  the 
hardy  little  native  cattle.  At  this  time  the  Teeswaters  were 
large,  rather  beefy  and  not  particularly  well  refined.  Their 
cross  with  the  little,  nervy,  native  stock  must  have  produced  a 
great  mixture  of  characteristics,  for  soon,  it  is  believed,  there  was 
an  introduction  of  breeding  cattle  from  Holland,  animals  pos- 
sibly the  red  and  white  Hollandish.  This  was  evidently  done  to 
improve  the  milking  qualities,  but  with  such  a  mixture,  the  breed 
became  too  large  and  lacking  in  the  nimble  grazing  qualities 
necessary  for  the  Scottish  hillside  pastures.  At  this  juncture  it 
is  thought  that  there  was  introduced  the  blood  of  Jersey  char- 
90 


BODY  CHARACTERISTICS  91 

acter  to  add  refinement,  to  reduce  the  size,  and  yet  to  hold  the 
milking  qualities.  The  West  Highland,  Guernsey  and  Devon 
bloods  were  probably  introduced  into  a  few  herds,  but  whether 
any  appreciable  amount  of  the  blood  of  the  later  has  been  handed 
down  in  those  animals  that  formed  the  Ayrshire  is  doubtful. 

Home  Conditions. — The  land  in  the  country  of  Ayr,  Scot- 
land, rises  from  the  ocean  on  the  west,  rapidly  into  the  moun- 
tains 2000  or  more  feet  in  height.  Though  cold  in  winter,  the 
climate  is  not  hot  in  summer.  Plentiful  rainfall  keeps  the 
grass  on  the  clay  pastures  abundant.  Thus  the  Ayrshire  cattle 
were  developed  under  the  cool,  rugged  conditions  where  grazing 
ability  was  essential. 

The  birth-place  of  the  Ayrshire  breed  of  cattle  in  close 
proximity  to  the  magnificently  developed  beef  breeds  of  both 
Scotland  and  England  doubtless  had  its  influence  in  the  develop- 
ment of  symmetry  and  beauty  in  this  dairy  breed.  And  certain 
it  is  that  the  Ayrshire  breeders  have  set  a  pace  in  the  matter 
of  beauty  and  poise  of  the  animal  which  the  adherents  of  other 
dairy  breeds  find  hard  to  follow  (Fig.  33). 

Importation  to  America — Early  in  the  nineteenth  century 
Ayrshires  were  brought  to  Canada  and  soon  after  herds  were 
established  in  New  England.  Some  are  thought  to  have  been 
brought  to  Connecticut  as  early  as  1822.  Many  of  the  Ayrshire 
herds  of  the  eastern  states  are  the  descendants  of  these  early 
importations.  Larger  numbers  of  better  developed  animals  were 
brought  over  later.     Importations  are  still  being  made. 

Body  Characteristics. — The  Ayrshire  ranks  as  a  middle- 
weight dairy  breed,  mature  cows  weighing  in  the  neighborhood 
of  1000  pounds  and  bulls  ranging  from  1500  to  2000  pounds. 
For  many  years  the  plump  form  was  held  to,  in  the  endeavor  to 
retain  the  beef-making  qualities  along  with  the  dairy.  These 
are  now  spoken  of  as  "  tubby  "  and  as  being  too  plump  to  be 
ideal  representatives  of  the  breed.  The  present  ideal  for  a  cow 
is  an  animal  of  greater  scale,  deeper  body,  and  more  angularity 
(Fig.  34).  The  beautiful,  straight  back,  level  rump,  long  rear 
quarters  and  symmetrical  udder  are  being  retained  and  the 
short  teats  of  the  past  are  being  developed  past  the  point  of 
criticism.     In  color  the  American  Ayrshire  is  often  a  deep  red, 


92 


AYRSHIRES 


streaked  with  seal  brown,  giving  a  brindle  effect,  but  ranging 
from  this  to  a  clear  cherry  red  and  white  (Fig.  35).  The  desire 
for  white  on  the  part  of  the  Scottish  and  Canadian  breeders 
became  current  a  few  years  ago,  with  the  result  that  the  ideal 
animals  of  the  present  are  three-fourths  or  more  pure  white  and 
the  remaining  part  a  dark  red,  often  assuming  a  seal  brown 
shade,  especially  in  bulls.  The  temperament  of  the  Ayrshire  is 
pronounced.  The  timid,  yet  forceful  and  active  manner  of  the 
aboriginal  wild  stock  used  as  foundation  stock  many  hundred 
years  ago  still  asserts  itself.  Most  cows  of  this  breed,  though 
not  vicious,  are  a  little  hard  to  handle,  because  so  headstrong. 


Fig.   33. — A  champion  Ayrshire  Bull,   Bargenoch  Gay  Cs 
rugged  outlines  and  deep  chest.     (Property  of  Adai 


Note  the  beautiful  and 
Seitz,  Waukesha,  Wis.) 


Their  character  must  be  taken  into  account  in  handling  them. 
Their  grazing  qualities  are  phenomenally  good.  Their  feet  are 
sound,  their  legs  are  straight  and  they  are  buoyant  Whether  for 
hillside  climbing  or  nibbling  of  the  short  grass  in  semi-arid  west- 
ern prairies,  the  Ayrshires  lead  all  other  breeds  of  dairy  cows. 
The  calves  at  birth  are  plump,  well  muscled  and  weigh  about 
seventy-five  pounds.  They  are  quick  to  stand  and  easy  to  raise. 
The  heifers  do  not  mature  very  rapidly  compared  with  the 
Jersey,  but  sufficiently  early  for  all  practical  purposes.     While 


Fig.  34. — A  typical  modern  Ayrshire  cow.     The  deep  body  and  rugged  frame  are  now 
sought  rather  than  the  short  "tubby"  form.     Note  the  well-balanced  udder,  good  sized, 
well-placed  teats,  and  the  large  crooked  milk  vein 
Fig. 35. — Imp.  Ayrshire  bull  Duchrae  Success.    (Owned  by  the  late  J.  J.  Hill,  St.  Paul,  Minn.) 


94  AYRSHIRES 

not  immune  to  any  of  the  diseases  that  afflict  cattle,  they  are 
more  nearly  free  from  them  than  other  dairy  breeds.  They  are 
remarkable  for  the  regularity  with  which  they  will  breed  and  the 
number  of  years  that  they  will  keep  at  work. 

Dairy  Qualities. — Most  Ayrshires  of  the  present  time  carry 
too  much  meat  to  be  pronounced  dairy  animals,  though  the 
present  tendency  is  towards  the  more  extreme  dairy  type.  The 
yield  of  milk  is  moderate  for  its  grade,  though  some  very  credit- 
able records  have  been  made  (Fig.  36).  An  average  of  twenty- 
four  animals  reported  by  American  Experiment  Stations  shows 
a  milk  yield  per  year  of  6533  pounds,  having  3.85  per  cent 
fat  and  yielding  257  pounds  of  fat. 

The  advanced  registry  for  this  breed  was  inaugurated  in 
1902  with  the  requirements  as  follows:  Cows  two  years  old  or 
under  must  produce  6000  pounds  of  milk  containing  214.3 
pounds  of  butter  fat.  For  each  day  over  two  years  a  0.06  pound 
increase  in  fat  is  demanded  and  1.37  pounds  in  milk,  with  the 
requirement  increasing  until  at  five  years  of  age  or  older  she 
must  produce  8500  pounds  of  milk  containing  322  pounds  of  fat. 
Bulls  scoring  80  points  and  having  two  daughters  from  different 
dams  in  the  Advanced  Registry,  or  without  scoring,  54  daughters 
in  Advanced  Registry,  are  themselves  admitted  into  the  Ad- 
vanced Registry. 

The  best  ten  living  Ayrshires  with  official  yearly  records  are : 

No.  Lbs.  Milk  Lbs.  Fat  Fat  <& 

27944  Garclaugh  May  Mischief 25,3-29  894.91  3.53 

27943  Auohenbrain  Brown  Kate,  4th  .  .  23.022  917.60  3.99 

22269  Lily  of  Willowmoor   22,596  955.56  4.23 

27950  Garclaugh    Spottie     22,589  816.25  3.61 

22269  Lily  of  Willow-moor 22,106  888.70  4.02 

47810  Nancy  Whitehall    22,075  858.77  3.89 

36910  Auchenbrain  Yellow  Kate  3rd  .  21,123  888.33  4.21 

23853  Gerranton  Dora  2nd    21,023  804.79  3.83 

35176  Henderson's    Dairy    Gem     ....  20,042  803.71  4.01 

29581  August  Lassie  19,582  831.50  4.25 

The  above  are  certainly  very  creditable  records  and  indicate 
strongly  the  probability  that  with  more  thorough  development 
of  the  deep  body  and  angularity  sought  at  the  present  time,  this 
breed  will  rival  the  other  dairy  breeds  even  more  closely  in  the 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  95 

future  than  in  the  past  in  the  matter  of  total  production. 
Especially  is  this  indicated  by  the  recent  record  of  17,974 
pounds  of  milk  containing  738.32  pounds  of  fat  produced  in  one 
year  by  the  senior  two-year-old  heifer,  Henderson's  Dairy  Gem 
35176,  which  is  the  record  for  all  breeds  for  the  age. 


Fia.  36. — Imp.  Ayrshire  cow,  Kilnforn  Bell  3d.      Grand  champion  for  the  breed  at  the 
National  Dairy  Show,  Chicago,  1913. 

Average  Yield  of  Milk  and  Butter  Fat  for  all  Cows  and  Heifers  That  Have 
Qualified  for  Advanced  Registry  Since  its  Inauguration  to  April  15,  1921 

Lbs.  Lbs.  Percent. 

Milk  Fat  Fat 

1461  Mature    Cows 11,335  442.74  3.92 

275  Senior  four -year  olds  10,751  442.46  3.94 

309  Junior  four-year  olds 10,117  404.53  4.00 

380  Senior  three-year  olds 9,490  380.62  4.01 

3£3  Junior  three-year  olds    9,010  359.64  3.99 

709  Senior   two-year   olds    8,767  357.15  4.07 

706  Junior  two-year  olds  8,098  326.86  4.03 

4~203  Total  cows  and  heifers 9,863  391.91  3.98 


96  AYRSHIRES 

Adaptations. — It  is  evident  from  what  lias  been  said  that 
the  place  for  the  Ayrshire  will,  in  the  future  as  in  the  past,  be 
found  closely  associated  with  the  mountainous  sections,  but  that 
in  addition  she  is  being  sought  by  those  farmers  of  our  west, 
whose  stock  must  graze  on  the  short  grass  pastures  of  the  region 
of  scanty  rainfall.  The  fact  that  the  Ayrshire  ha.s  been  known 
and  advertised  as  a  very  hardy  cow,  doing  better  under  hard 
conditions  than  most  or  any  other  breed,  has  undoubtedly 
attracted  to  this  breed  men  who  propose  to  give  loose  care  and  to 
subject  the  animals  to  hardships.  Xo  breed  could  develop 
rapidly  under  such  management.  The  Ayrshire  is  a  beautiful 
and  a  useful  cow  worthy  of  being  kept  in  greater  numbers. 

Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  Ayrshire  Cows 

Student'! 
Counts      Score 
Head   10: 

Forehead,  broad,  and  clearly  defined   1 

Horns,  wide  set  on  and  inclining  upward   1 

Face,  of  medium  length,  slightly  dished,  clean  cut.  show- 
ing veins    2 

Muzzle,    broad    and    strong    without    coarseness,    nostrils 

large     1 

Jaws,  wide  at  the  base  and  strong   1 

Eyes,  full  and  bright  with  placid  expression    3 

Ears,  of  medium  size  and  fine,  carried  alert   1 

Neck,    fine    throughout,    throat    clean,    neatly    joined    to 
head  and  shoulders,  of  good  length,  moderately  thin. 

nearly  free  from  loose  skin,  elegant  in  bearing   3 

Fore  Quarters  10: 

Shoulders,  light,  good  distance  through  from  point  to  point. 

but   sharp   at  withers,   smoothly  blending  into   body       2 
Chest,  low,  deep  and  full  between  and  back  of  forelegs  ....        G 

Brisket,  light   1 

Legs  and  feet,  legs  straight  and  short,  well  apart,  shanks 
fine  and  smooth,  joints  firm,  feet  medium  size,  round 

solid  and  deep    1 

Body  13 : 

Back,   strong  and  straight,   chine  lean,   sharp,  and  open 

jointed     ..■•••        4 

Loin,  broad,  strong  and  level   2 

Kiba,  long,  broad,  wide  apart  and  well  sprung   3 


SCAL£  OF  POINTS 
Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  Ayrshire  Cows   (continued) 

Counts 
Abdomen,   capacious,   deep,   firmly   held  up   with   strong 

muscular   development   3 

Flank,  thin  and  arching   1 

Hind  Quarters  11: 

Rump,  wide,  level,  and  long  from  hocks  to  pin  bones,  a 

reasonable   pelvic    arch   allowed   3 

Hocks,   wide   apart   and  not   projecting   above    back   nor 

unduly  overlaid  with  fat   2 

Pin  bones,  high  and  wide  apart    1 

Thighs,  thin,  long  and  wide  apart   2 

Tail,  long,  fine,  set  on  a  level  with  back  1 

Legs  and  feet,  legs  strong,  short,  straight  when  viewed 
from  behind  and  set  well  apart;  shanks  fine  and 
smooth,   joints   firm,  feet  medium   size,  round,   solid 

and    deep 2 

Udder,  long,  wide,  deep,  but  not  pendulous,  nor  fleshy, 
firmly  attached  to  the  body,  extending  well  up  behind 
and  far  forward,  quarters  even,  sole  nearly  level  and 
not  indented  between  teats,  udder  veins  well  developed 

and   plainly   visible    22 

Teats,  evenly  placed,  distance  apart  from  side  to  side  equal 
to  half  the  breadth  of  udder,  from  back  to  front  equal 
to  one-third  the  length,  length  2%  to  3x/4  inches,  thick- 
ness in  keeping  with  length,  hanging  perpendicular 

and  not  tapering 8 

Mammary    Veins,    large,    long,    tortuous,    branching    and 

entering  large  orifices   5 

Escutcheon,  distinctly  defined,  spreading  over  thighs  and 

extending  well  upward   2 

Color,  red  of  any  shade,  brown,  or  these  with  white;  ma- 
hogany and  white,  or  white;  each  color  distinctly 
defined.  (Brindle  markings  allowed  but  not  de- 
sirable.)    . .  .' 2 

Covering  6: 

Skin,  of  medium  thickness,  mellow  and  elastic    3 

Hair,  soft  and  fine   2 

Secretions,  oily,  of  rich  brown  or  yellow  color   1 

Style,  alert,  vigorous,  showing  strong  masculine  character, 

temperament  inclined  to  nervous,  but  still  docile   . .        4 
Weight,  at  maturity  not  less  than  one  thousand  pounds ....       4 


97 


Student's 
Score 


Total 


100 


98  AYRSHIRES 

Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  Ayrshire  Bulls 

Counts 

Head  16: 

Forehead    broad  and   clearly  defined    2 

Horns,  strong  at  base,  set  wide  apart,  inclining  upward  . .        1 
Face,  of  medium  length,  clean  cut,  showing  facial  veins  .  .       2 

Muzzle,  broad  and  strong  without  coarseness   1 

Nostrils,   large  and   open    2 

Jaws,   wide   at   base   and   strong    1 

Eyes,  moderately  large,  full  and  bright 3 

Ears,  of  medium  size  and  fine,  carried  alert 1 

Expression,  full  of  vigor,  resolution  and  masculinity  ....        3 
Neck  10: 

Of  medium  length,  somewhat  arched,  large  and  strong  in 
the  muscles  on  top,  inclined  to  flatness  on  sides,  en- 
larging symmetrically  towards  the   shoulder,   throat 

clean  and  free  from  loose  skin  10 

Fore  Quarters  15: 

Shoulders,  strong,  smoothly  blending  into  body  with  good 

distance  through  from  point  to  point  and  fine  on  top  3 
Chest,  low,  deep  and  full  between  back  and  forelegs  ....  8 
Brisket,   deep,   not  too   prominent,   and  with  very   little 

dewlap    2 

Legs  and  feet,  legs  well  apart,  straight,  and  short,  shanks 
fine   and   smooth,   joints   firm,   feet   of   medium   size, 

sound,  solid  and  deep  2 

Body  18: 

Back,   short  and  straight,   chine  strongly  developed   and 

open  jointed   5 

Loin,  broad,  strong  and  level    4 

Ribs,  long,  broad,  strong,  well  sprung,  and  wide  apart   .  .       4 
Abdomen,  large  and  deep,  trimly  held  up  with  muscular 

development    4 

Flank,  thin  and  arching   1 

Hind  Quarters  16: 

Rump,  level,  long  from  hocks  to  pin  bones   5 

Hocks,  medium  distance  apart,  proportionately  narrower 

than  in  female,  not  rising  above  the  level  of  the  back       2 

Pin  bones,  high,  wide  apart  2 

Thighs,  thin,  long  and  wide  apart 4 

Tail,  fine,  long,  and  set  on  a  level  with  back   1 

Legs  and  feet,  legs  straight,  set  well  apart,  shanks  fine  and 
smooth;  feet  medium  size,  round,  solid  and  deep,  not 
to  cross  in  walking      2 


Student'i 
Score 


QUESTIONS 


99 


Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  Ayrshire  Bulls    {continued) 

Counts 

Scrotum,  well  developed  and  strongly  carried 3 

Rudimentaries,  veins,  etc.,  teats  of  uniform  size,  squarely 
placed,  wide  apart  and  free  from  scrotum;  veins  long, 
large  tortuous,  with  extensions  entering  large  orifices; 
escutcheon  pronounced  and  covering  a  large  surface  4 
Color,  red  of  any  shade,  brown,  or  these  with  white, 
mahogany  and  white,  or  white;  each  color  distinctly 

defined   3 

Covering  6: 

Skin,   medium   thickness,   mellow   and   elastic    3 

Secretions,  oily,  of  rich  brown  or  yellow  color   1 

Hair,  soft  and  fine   2 

Style,  active,   vigorous,   showing  strong   masculine  char- 
acter, temperament  inclined  to  nervousness,  but  not 

irritable  or  vicious    5 

Weight  at  maturity  not  less  than  1500  pounds 4 

Total     100 


Student's 
Score 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  did  the  Ayrshire  develop? 

2.  What  blood  elements  were  used  in  building  the  breed? 

3.  Describe  the  native  home  conditions  of  the  Ayrshire. 

4.  How  have  the  near-by  beef  breeds  influenced  this  dairy  breed? 

5.  When  were  they  imported  into  America? 

6.  Describe  an  Ayrshire  cow,  as  to  color,  size,  temperament,  grazing  ability, 

outline  and  general  breeding  and  handling  qualities. 

7.  What  conditions  seem  to  call  for  the  Ayrshire  cow? 

8.  Is  she  an  intense  dairy  animal? 

9.  What  is  the  best  record  to  date  ? 

10.  How  does  the  average  fat  produced  compare  with  the  other  breeds  of 
cattle? 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE  RED  POLLS 

The  Ked  Polled  cattle  are  of  ancient  English  origin. 
Whether  the  foundation  stock  came  from  the  continent  with  the 
Scandinavian  settlers  of  Suffolk  in  the  fifth  century  a.d.,  or 
from  some  native  aboriginal  wild  stock,  will  probably  never  be 
known.  They  were  developed,  however,  at  a  very  early  period 
in  the  two  counties  of  Xorfolk  and  Suffolk  in  eastern  England. 
In  Norf oik  they  were  beefy  and  poor  milkers,  dark  red  in  color 
and  hardy.  In  Suffolk  they  were  of  indifferent  beef  value,  but 
considered  as  very  good  dairy  cows  and  were  without  horns. 
The  present  breed  is  the  result  of  an  amalgamation  of  the  two 
types  which  was  accomplished  more  than  a  hundred  years  ago. 

Home  Conditions. — The  home  of  this  breed  was  on  low  hills 
and  marshes.  While  the  soil  was  not  always  of  the  best,  the 
climate  was  mild  and  moist,  thus  encouraging  ample  pasturage. 
It  is  natural,  indeed,  to  expect  from  such  conditions,  coupled 
with  good  care,  that  the  animals  should  grow  large,  mature 
early  and  be  generally  responsive.      Such  is  found  to  be  the  case. 

Importations  to  America — While  it  is  thought  that  animals 
of  the  Eed  Polled  stock  were  brought  to  this  continent  with  the 
early  English  colonists  at  Jamestown,  Virginia,  because  of  the 
prevalence  in  the  eastern  states  of  a  red  muley  cow,  it  is  known 
that  better  developed  animals  of  this  breed  were  imported  in 
1847  to  Massachusetts.  From  1873  to  1887  large  numbers  were 
brought  over.  The  Ked  Polled  Cattle  Club  of  America  was 
organized  in  November,  1883. 

Body  Characteristics. — The  color  of  the  Red  Polls  is  a 
solid  deep  red  with  an  occasional  white  patch  on  the  udder, 
belly  or  switch.  The  size  is  medium  to  large,  mature  cows 
weighing  from  12  00  to  1600  pounds  or  more,  and  bulls  from  1800 
to  2400  pounds.  As  their  name  indicates,  the  breed  is  entirely 
without  horns  (Fig.  37).  In  general  bodily  make-up  they  are 
not  so  thick  in  the  neck,  back  or  leg  as  the  beef  breeds  nor  as 
100 


ADVANCED  REGISTRY  101 

thin  as  the  more  pronounced  dairy  breeds.  They  are  not  so 
angular  as  many  Shorthorns  nor  as  compact  as  the  Hereford. 
The  temperament  of  Red  Polls  is  somewhat  nervous  but  not 
disagreeably  so.  Calves  weigh  from  eighty  to  ninety  pounds  at 
birth,  are  strong,  easy  to  raise  and  mature  in  medium  time  com- 
pared with  other  breeds. 

Dairy  Characteristics. — From  the  earliest  records  the  Suffolk 
cattle  were  known  as  good  dairy  cows.  It  is  recorded  that  some 
whole  herds,  while  on  good  pasture,  would  average  five  or  six 
gallons  of  milk  per  day,  while  a  few  of  the  best  cows  yielded  as 
much  as  seven  or  eight  gallons  per  day.  The  Norfolk  cattle 
with  which  the  Suffolk  were  blended  were  more  on  the  beef  order, 
consequently  the  modern  Red  Polls  are  probably  not  as  free 
milkers  as  were  the  old  Suffolks.     The  milk,  however,  is  richer. 

The  herd  of  Mr.  Garret  Taylor,  of  England,  consisting  of 
ninety-eight  cows,  is  reported  as  averaging  5582  pounds  of  milk 
in  189G,  while  in  1895  with  eighty-seven  cows  in  corresponding 
condition  as  to  age,  averaged  5540  pounds.  Lord  Rothschild's 
herd  at  Tring  Park,  England,  has  been  selected  with  a  special 
view  to  milk  production.  Thirty-seven  cows,  in  1896,  averaged 
6937  pounds  of  milk.  In  smaller  herds  more  rigidly  selected 
for  dairy  purposes  there  were  even  higher  yields  (Fig.  38). 

In  America,  until  recent  years,  the  breed  has  been  handled 
more  largely  by  beef  fanciers  than  by  dairymen,  yet  some  very 
creditable  records  have  been  made.  At  the  Pan-American  Model 
Dairy  at  Buffalo  in  1901,  this  breed  ranked  fifth  in  a  class  of 
ten  of  the  best  dairy  breeds  of  the  country.  Many  three-day 
records  of  three  to  four  pounds  of  fat  per  day  have  since  been 
made  at  various  state  fairs. 

The  Advanced  Registry  was  inaugurated  in  December, 
1908.  In  this  only  yearly  records  are  recognized.  "  Only  such 
cows  as  have  made  officially  authenticated  butter  fat  records  not 
less  in  amount  than  6000  pounds  of  milk  or  300  pounds  of 
butter  fat  in  twelve  months  shall  be  eligible  to  advanced  regis- 
try." In  addition :  "A  cow  to  be  eligible  to  entry  with  descrip- 
tion must  scale  at  least  eighty  points  of  the  official  scale  of 
points  and  must  weigh  not  less  than  1100  pounds." 


102 


THE  RED  POLLS 


This  last  clause  with  respect  to  size  and  score  could  well  be 
emulated  by  every  other  breed  of  dairy  cows. 


Fig.  37. — Typical  Red  Polled  bull,  Teddy's  Best,  a  champion  at  many  fairs,  head  of  the 
herd  at  Jean  Du  Luth  Farm,  Duluth,  Minn. 
Fig.  38. — Typical  Red  Polled  cow,  Jean  Du  Luth  Beauty  (A.  R.),  World's  champion 
Red  Polled  cow.     Record  20,280.6  pounds  milk,  891  pounds  butter  fat  in  one  year.     (Bred 
and  owned  by  the  Jean  Du  Luth  Farm,  Duluth,  Minn.) 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  103 

Official  Milk  Records — The  best  ten  yearly  milk  and  fat 
records  for  this  breed  up  to  February  1st,  1916,  are  as  follows: 

Semiofficial  Yearly  or  Lactation  Records  of  Full  Aged  Red  Polled  Cows 

Lbs.  Milk  Lbs.  Fat 

31725  Jean   Duluth   Beauty    20280.6  891.58 

28991  Jean   Duluth.  Pear    16598.4  707.24 

24888  Pear    13160.6  605.66 

33370  Rebuna  2nd    11005.4  600.93 

31787  Jean  Duluth  Dorothy    11614.8  571.46 

26619  Flora    12590.0  595.73 

26749  Flossie     14811.4  567-78 

26378  Diana   2nd    12622.1  546.80 

28991  Jean  Duluth  Pear  13538.4  546.34 

29276  Goldie 13360.9  544.42 

The  best  record  by  any  one  herd  has  been  made  by  the 
Jean  Du  Luth  Farm,  Duluth,  Minnesota,  with  mature  cows  as 
follows : 

No.  Cows  in 
Herd 

1912   26 

1913 24 

1914   24 

1915   20  1 

1915   13  2 


verage  Lbs. 
Milk 

Average  Lbs 
Fat 

6529 

268.00 

7645 

316.27 

9818 

403.50 

10781 

467.20 

11274 

479.93 

Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  Red  Polled  Cows 


Student 
Counts       Score 


Color Any  shade  of  red.    The  switch  of  the  tail 

aijd  udder  may  be  white,  with  some 
white  running  forward  of  the  navel. 
Nose  a  clear  flesh  color.  Interior  of 
ears  should  be  a  yellowish  waxy  color 
Objections:  An  extreme  dark  or  an  ex- 
treme light  red  is  not  desirable.  A 
cloudy  nose  or  one  with  dark  spots. 


1  Include  records  of  six  heifers  with  first  calf  and  one  incomplete  year 
of  a  mature  cow. 

1  Include  only  records  of  mature  cows. 


104 


THE  RED  POLLS 


Head. 


Neck. 


Shoulder. 


Chest 


Back  and  Ribs . 


Hips 
Quarters . 


Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  Red  Polled  Cows   (continued) 


Counts 

.Of  medium  length,  wide  between  the  eyes, 
sloping  gradually  from  above  eyes  to 
poll.  The  poll  well  denned  and  prom- 
inent, with  a  sharp  dip  behind  it  in 
center  of  head.  Ears  of  medium  size 
and  well  carried.  Eyes  prominent; 
face   well   dished   between   the   eyes. 

Muzzle  wide  with  large  nostrils 6 

Objections:  A  rounding  or  flat  appear- 
ance of  the  poll.  Head  too  long  and 
narrow. 

.Of  medium  length,  clean  cut,  and  straight 
from  head  to  top  of  shoulder  with 
inclination  to  arch  when  fattened,  and 
may  show  folds  of  loose  skin  under- 
neath when  in  milking  form 3 

.Of  medium  thickness  and  smoothly  laid, 

coming  up  level  with  line  of  back.  .  .      6 
Objections:       Shoulder    too    prominent, 
giving  the  appearance  of  weakness  in 
heart     girth,     shoulder     protruding 
above  line  of  back. 

.Broad  and  deep,  insuring  constitution. 
Brisket  prominent  and  coming  well 
forward    10 

.Back  medium  long,  straight  and  level 
from  withers  to  setting  on  of  tail, 
moderately  wide,  with  spring  of  ribs 
starting  from  the  back  bone,  giving 
a    rounding    appearance,    with    ribs 

flat  and  fairly  wide  apart 14 

Objections:  Front  ribs  too  straight, 
causing  depression  back  of  shoulders. 
Drop  in  back  or  loin  below  the  top 
line. 

^Yide,  rounding  over  the  hooks,  and  well 
covered   3 

.Of  good  length,  full,  rounding  and  level; 

thighs  wide,  roomy  and  not  too  meaty     6 
Objections:    Prominent  hooks  and  sunken 
quarters. 


Student'6 
Score 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


105 


Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  Red  Polled  Cows    (continued) 


Counts 

Tail Tail  head  strong  and  setting  well  for- 
ward, long  and  tapering  to  a  full 
switch    2 

Legs Short,  straight,  squarely  placed,  medium 

bone    3 

Objections:  Hocks  crooked,  legs  placed 
too  close  together. 

Fore-Udder Full  and  flexible,  reaching  well  forward, 

extending  down  level  with  hind  udder  10 

Hind-Udder Full  and  well  up  behind 10 

Teats Well  placed,  wide  apart  and  reasonably 

good  size    4 

Objections :  Lack  of  development,  especi- 
ally in  forward  udder.  Udder  too 
deep,  "bottle  shaped"  and  teats  too 
close  together.  Teats  unevenly  placed 
and  either  too  large  or  too  small. 

Milk  Veins Of  medium  size,  full,  flexible,  extending 

well    forward,    well   retained   within 
the  body;  milk  wells  of  medium  size     6 

Hide Loose,  mellow,  flexible,  inclined  to  thick- 
ness, with  a  good  full  coat  of  soft  hair     5 
Objections:      Thin,  papery  skin  or  wiry 
hair. 

Condition Healthy;  moderate  to  liberal  flesh,  even- 
ly laid  on;  glossy  coat;  animal  pre- 
sented in  good  bloom 10 


Student's 
Score 


Total 


100 


General  Description.  .  .Cow  medium,  wedge  form,  low  set,  top 
and  bottom  lines  straight  except  at  flank;  weight  1300  lbs. 
to  1500  lbs.  when  mature  and  finished. 


Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  Red  Polled  Bulls 


Color . 


Student's 
Counts         Score 
The  switch  of  the  tail 


.Any  shade  of  red 

may  be  white,  with  some  white  run- 
ning forward  to  the  navel.  Nose  of  a 
clear  flesh  color.  Interior  of  ears 
should  be  of  a  yellowish,  waxy  color 


106 


THE  RED  POLLS 


Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  Red  Polled  Bulls   (continued) 

Counts 
Objections:    An  extreme  dark  or  an  ex- 
treme light  red  is  not  desirable.     A 
cloudy  nose  or  one  with  dark  spots. 

Head Wide,   strong  and   masculine,   relatively 

short.  Poll  stronger  and  less  prom- 
inent than  in  cow.  Ears  of  medium 
size  and  well  carried;  eyes  promi- 
nent; muzzle  wide  and  large  nostrils  12 
Objections:  Long,  narrow  or  lacking  in 
masculine  character. 

Neck Of   medium    length,    full    crest,   of   good 

thickness,   strong,   of   masculine   ap- 
pearance           5 

Shoulder Of  medium  thickness  and  smoothly  laid, 

coming  up  level  with  line  of  back.  .  .      8 
Objections:        Shoulder     too     prominent, 
giving    the    appearance    of    weakness 
of   heart  girth,    shoulder   protruding 
above  line  of  back. 

Chest Broad    and    deep,    insuring    constitution. 

Brisket  prominent  and  coming  well 

forward    12 

.  .  Back  medium  long,  straight  and  level 
from  withers  to  setting  on  of  tail, 
moderately  wide,  with  spring  of  ribs 
starting  from  the  back  bone,  giving  a 
rounding  appearance,  with  ribs  flat 

and  fairly  wide  apart 14 

Objections:      Front    ribs    too     straight, 

causing  depression  back  of  shoulders. 

Drop  in  back  or  loin  below  the  top 

line. 

.  .  Wide,  rounding  over  the  hooks,  and  well 

covered     3 

.  .Of  good  length,  full,  rounding  and  level; 
thighs    wide    and    moderately    full, 

deep    6 

Objections:    Prominent  hooks  and  sunken 
quarters. 
Tail Tail   head   strong  and   setting  well   for- 
ward,   long   and    tapering   to   a   full 
switch     2 


Student's 
Score 


Back  and  Bibs. 


Hips.  . .  . 
Quarters 


QUESTIONS 

Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  Red  Polled  Bulls   {continued) 


107 


Student's 
Counts     Score 


Legs Short,  straight,  squarely  placed,  medium 

bone    

Objections:     Hocks  crooked;  legs  placed 
too  close  together. 
Rudimentaries Large,  wide  apart  and  placed  well  for- 
ward    

Position  of  rudimentaries 

Objections:  Rudimentaries  placed  back 
on  scrotum,  or  placed  too  close  to- 
gether, indicating  tendency  to  trans- 
mit badly  formed  udders. 
Hide. Loose,  mellow,  flexible,  inclined  to  thick- 
ness, with  a  good,  full  coat  of  soft 

hair     5 

Objections:     Thin,  papery   skin   or  wiry 
hair. 

Conditions Healthy ;  moderate  to  liberal  flesh,  evenly 

laid  on ;  glossy  coat,  animal  presented 
in  good  bloom    


12 


Total 


100 


General  Description .  .  .  Strong,  impressive,  low  set  and  of  good 
carriage.  Weight  1800  lbs.  to  2000  lbs.  when  mature  and 
finished. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  did  the  Red  Polls  develop?     How? 

2.  What  were  their  home  conditions? 

3.  When  were  Red  Polls  imported  into  America? 

4.  Describe  a  Red  Polled  cow,  as  to  color,  form,  size,  performance,  tem- 

perament. 

5.  Compare  with  other  breeds. 

6.  Is  the  Red  Poll  a  "dairy"  breed? 

7.  When  was  the  advanced  registry  inaugurated  for  this  breed? 

8.  What  qualities  other  than  amount  of  milk  and  butter  production  must 

cows  of  this  breed  possess  for  admission  into  the  advanced  registry? 

9.  What  is  the  best  fat  record  for  this  breed? 
10.  What  is  the  best  record  for  any  herd? 


CHAPTER  XIII 
BROWN   SWISS 

The  breed  of  cattle  known  in  America  as  the  Brown  Swiss 
is  probably  the  oldest  pure  breed  in  this  country,  if  not  in  the 
world.  Their  origin  is  shrouded  by  the  mists  of  the  early  dawn 
of  the  human  race  in  Europe.  Though  some  believe  that  the 
race  is  of  Oriental  origin  it  is  practically  certain  that  animals 
much  of  the  type  of  the  present  Brown  Swiss  have  inhabited  the 
Alpine  region  since  before  human  history  began.  Remnants  of 
all  sorts  of  animals  and  crude  tools  have  been  found  in  the  mud 
in  the  bottoms  of  the  lakes.  There,  amid  the  charred  posts  of 
the  early  lake  dwellings  of  human  inhabitants,  cattle  skulls  of 
the  short,  broad  type  of  the  present  Brown  Swiss  have  been 
found.  So  far  as  we  are  concerned  the  Brown  Swiss  cattle  have 
always  lived  where  they  are  now  found,  in  the  valleys  and  on 
the  mountain  sides  of  Switzerland. 

Though  the  Brown  Swiss  is  the  most  important  and  by  far 
the  best  known  breed  in  America  of  all  breeds  having  originated 
in  Switzerland,  there  is  another,  the  large  spotted  Simmenthaler 
or  Fleckvieh  breed  of  more  importance  in  the  home  country. 
Aside  from  these  two  major,  some  minor  breeds  or  variations 
have  developed  in  the  various  valleys  where  the  stock  has  been 
kept  for  ages  with  little  admixture  from  without. 

Home  Conditions. — Switzerland,  that  mountainous  little 
republic  in  southern  Europe,  comprises  less  than  16,000  square 
miles  and  of  this  only  about  TO  per  cent  is  productive.  The  hill- 
side pastures  are  steep,  making  grazing  laborious,  but  the  grass 
growing  in  patches  is  usually  well  watered  from  the  snows  above. 
It  is  the  custom  there  to  turn  the  stock  onto  pastures  as  early  as 
possible  in  the  spring  on  the  low  levels  and  as  the  season  advances 
and  grass  becomes  green  at  higher  altitudes,  the  cows  are  driven 
to  pastures  up  on  the  mountain  side;  later  to  a  yet  higher  plain. 
They  are  not  brought  back  daily,  but  the  milkmaid  or  man  fol- 
lows the  herd.  Every  morning  and  every  night  the  fresh  milk 
108 


BODY  CHARACTERISTICS  109 

is  made  into  cheese  and  stored  in  dairy  houses  at  convenient 
points  to  be  brought  down  later.  With  the  first  cold  of  the  high- 
altitude  pastures  the  cows  retreat  through  a  succession  of  grazing 
places  to  the  valley,  where  they  go  into  winter  quarters.  The 
cheese  made  from  the  cows  while  on  the  green  grass  and  pure 
water  of  the  mountain  side  is  that  which  has  made  Switzerland 
famous,  and  from  which  a  good  share  of  the  annual  cheese  income 
of  26,000,000  dollars  is  derived.  During  the  long  winter  the 
cows  are  fed  hay  made  from  the  lowland  grass,  carefully  pre- 
served roots,  potatoes,  and  a  very  small  quantity  of  grain.  This 
is  usually  linseed  oil  cake.  Hundreds  of  years  of  life  largely 
in  the  open  with  the  heavy  climbing  necessary  to  pasture  and  the 
heavy  work  done  by  cows  as  oxen  have  developed  in  this  breed  the 
qualities  which  now  make  it  popular. 

Body  Characteristics — The  Brown  Swiss  is  one  of  the 
heavy  dairy  breeds,  the  cows  ordinarily  reaching  1200  to  1400 
pounds  at  maturity,  while  bulls  frequently  weigh  a  ton  or  more. 
(Fig.  39.)  They  are  rather  heavy  of  bone  and  generally  coarse 
in  make-up.  Their  top  line  is  usually  reasonably  straight  and 
the  body  deep,  which  gives  them  a  symmetry  broken  only  by  their 
unusually  broad  heads  and  muzzles.  The  color  of  the  animals 
of  this  breed  varies  from  a  silvery  gray  to  almost  black,  the 
dark  shade,  however,  is  of  a  rich  brown-black  rather  than  the  jet 
black  of  the  Holsteins.  A  light  colored  strip  is  usually  present 
'down  the  back  bone,  and  yellowish  muzzles  always  present  in  the 
best  marked  animals.  The  disposition  of  the  Brown  Swiss  is 
one  of  their  assets,  it  being  particularly  mild  and  non-resentful. 
The  various  qualities  differ  somewhat,  the  animals  raised  more 
largely  on  the  higher  altitudes  have  become  smaller,  and  those 
pastured  more  largely  on  the  lower  levels  have  attained  greater 
size.  Most  cows  are  also  used  largely  for  working  purposes  as 
well  as  for  the  production  of  oxen  and  milk.  These  have 
developed  heavy,  coarse  bones  at  the  expense  of  both  meat  and 
milk  qualities. 

Calves  usually  weigh  100  pounds  or  more  at  birth,  making 
quick  gains  for  veal  but  maturing  rather  slowly  as  cows.  This 
may  be  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  in  Switzerland  the  heifers 


110  BROWN  SWISS 

are  not  bred  to  freshen  until  about  three  years  of  age.  Though 
late  maturing  they  are,  like  the  Ayrshire,  noted  for  their  ability 
to  continue  at  work  until  old  age. 

For  a  long  period  of  time  this  breed  has  been  considered  in 
the  home  country  a  dairy  breed  but  since  good  amount  of  flesh 
was  desired  on  work  animals  those  naturally  were  selected  which 
perpetuated  the  meaty  thighs  and  well  covered  back,  rather  than 
the  more  angular  dairy  type  of  animal.  In  America,  however, 
the  Brown  Swiss  has  been  considered  in  the  dual  purpose  class 
and  were  so  entered  at  the  World's  Fair  in  Chicago,  in  1893,  at 
Buffalo  in  1901  and  at  St.  Louis  in  1904,  but  in  190S  the  Brown 
Swiss  Cattle  Breeders'  Association  went  on  record  asking  fair 
associations  to  class  this  breed  as  strictly  dairy  cattle,  and  since 
then  the  breeding  has  been  tending  more  strongly  towards  the 
production  of  a  less  meaty  animal  with  better  developed  mam- 
mary organs  and  nervous  temperament,  in  short,  the  refining  of 
the  breed  toward  the  dairy  type  (Fig.  40). 

Importation  to  America — So  far  as  recorded  the  first  ani- 
mals of  this  breed  to  be  brought  to  America  were  imported  in 
1869,  by  Henry  M.  Clarke  of  Belmont,  Mass.  From  Mr. 
Clarke's  importation  some  two  hundred  or  more  animals  are  now 
descended.  In  1882  other  animals  were  imported  by  Mr. 
Scott  of  Massachusetts,  and  Mr.  Harris  of  Connecticut.  Since 
then  various  importations  have  been  made  until  now  it  is  esti- 
mated that  ten  thousand  have  been  recorded,  and  that  fully  five 
thousand  animals  are  now  kept  in  Xew  England,  the  middle 
west,  and  western  states. 

The  popularity  of  the  Brown  Swiss  is  due  quite  as  much  to 
their  rich  color  and  quiet  dispositions  as  to  their  meat  or  milk- 
making  adaptations.  They  are  so  heavy,  so  strong,  and  so 
tractable  and  easy  to  handle  that  phenomenal  loads  are  drawn  by 
them  as  oxen.  Animals  of  this  breed  are  now,  and  have  been  for 
years,  greatly  sought  in  all  the  southern  European  countries,  in 
Siberia,  Russia,  South  America  and  Mexico  as  draft  animals. 
In  Mexico  there  is  no  draft  animal  more  popular,  for  there  the 
Brown  Swiss  cow  is  made  to  do  triple  service,  to  draw  the  load, 
to  yield  milk,  and  her  own  flesh  as  beef  in  the  end  (Fig.  8).  Some 


IMPORTATION  TO  AMERICA 


111 


breeders  in  the  United  States  are  making  a  practice  of  catering  to 
the  Mexican  trade  in  supplying  these  triple  purpose  animals.   Of 


Fig.   39. — A  champion  Imp. 


l  Swiss  bull,  My  Own  Boy, belonging  to  J.P.Allyn, 
Delavan,  Wis. 


FlQ.  40. — A  champion  Brown  Swiss  cow,  Belle  of  Grattan.      Note  the  placid  disposition  and 
strong  frame.    (Owned  by  J.  P.  Allyn,  Delavan,  Wis.) 


112  BROWN  SWISS 

late  years  the  demand  lias  been  so  keen  for  breeding  stock  that  tlie 
government  of  Switzerland  has  felt  it  necessary  to  intervene  to 
prevent  the  sale  of  their  best  animals  to  outside  buyers. 

Dairy  Characteristics. — Since  the  Brown  Swiss  breeders 
have  so  recently  taken  decided  stand  to  produce  high  type  single 
purpose  dairy  animals  it  cannot  be  expected  that  the  representa- 
tives will  be  uniform  in  their  dairy  capacity.  A  goodly  number 
of  individuals  of  the  breed,  however,  have  done  reasonably  well 
(Fig.  41).  One  of  the  leading  herds  of  the  breed  belonging  to 
E.  M.  Barton  of  Illinois  is  reported  as  having  made  yearly 
records  as  follows : 

2  cows  12,000    to  13,000    pounds  milk 

7  cows  11,000   to  12,000   pounds  milk 

8  cows  10,000   to  11,000    pounds  milk 
4  cows  9,000   to  10,000   pounds  milk 

10  cows       8,000   to     9,000   pounds   milk 
2  cows       7,000  to      8,000  pounds  milk 

The  highest  amount  of  fat  produced  in  one  year  was  513 
pounds,  while  twenty-three  showed  a  production  of  over  400 
pounds.  The  Agricultural  School  of  Plantahof,  Fraubuender, 
Switzerland,  reported  the  following  from  their  herd  of  fifty  cows : 

1892' 5782  pounds  milk 

1893 5500  pounds  milk 

1894 6117  pounds  milk 

1895 6307  pounds  milk 

1896 6252  pounds  milk 

Tlie    avvrage    percentage   of    fat   was    3.77 

F.  H.  Mason,  U.  S.  Consul  at  Zurich,  reported  6000  cows 
belonging  to  the  Anglo-Swiss  Condensed  Milk  Company  at  an 
average  of  5115  pounds  milk  with  3.68  per  cent  fat,  or  a  pro- 
duction of  188.23  pounds  of  fat  per  cow  per  year. 

The  advanced  registry  for  this  breed,  called  Registry  of 
Production,  was  established  in  the  year  of  1911.  The  following- 
are  a  few  of  the  official  records  made  since  that  time : 


ADVANCED  REGISTRY 


113 


Brown  8wiss  Cattle  Breeders'  Association 
Lbs.  Milk 
Beauty  Collier,  No.  5879.    Owned  by  W.  0.  Boliart, 

Bozeman,  Mont.     305  day  record  of 18,076.6 

This  cow  produced  a  fully  matured  calf  in  one 
year  and  fifteen  days  from  date  of  last  calving, 
thus  meeting  the  requirement  of  a  calf  within 
fourteen  months  from  date  of  last  calving. 


Lbs.  Fat 
633.58 


Fig.  41. — Brown  Swiss  cow,  My  One  Baby,  337S,  grand  champion  for 
National  Dairy  Show,  1912,  and  at  the  Michigan  State  Fair,  1913.  Record,  15,71 
milk,  595.94  pounds  fat. 

Best  Ten  Yearly  Records  of  Mature  Brown  Siviss  Cows  in  Reg 
Production,   January  1,   1921 

Lbs.  Milk 

College    Bravura   2nd.   2577    19,460.6 

Ethel   B.,   3842    18,816.2 

Ethel   B.,   3842    17,707.7 

Bertha  M.,  4326 16,225.5 

Lottie  G.  D.,  3530 17,595.3 

Brownie  F.,  4855   17,420.8 

Buenna  F.,  4279   15,957.8 

Kaliste  W.,   2905    16,609.2 

Flora  Duwire,  4105   16,538.1 

Nan   off   Lake    View,    4061     17,136.4 

8 


istry  of 

Lbs.  Fat 
798.16 
779.97 
737.30 
695.28 
664.25 
662.25 
654.97 
650.32 
649.42 
647.30 


114 


BROWN  SWISS 


Adaptations. — From  the  foregoing  it  is  evident  that  the 
places  in  which  the  Brown  Swiss  will  serve  better  than  other 
breeds  are :  First,  where  extreme  dairy  production  is  not  of  first 
importance.  Second,  as  a  general  utility  animal  in  the  hands  of 
people  unaccustomed  to  the  headstrong  or  active  manner  of  other 
breeds.  Third,  the  grades  of  this  breed  resemble  very  strongly 
pure  bred  Swiss.  Pure  bulls  effect  rapid  improvement  where 
dual  or  triple  purpose  animals  are  desired.  They  are  a  very 
healthy  breed  and  produce  very  vigorous  calves  that  are 
easily  raised. 


Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  Broun  Swiss  Cows 

Counts 

1.  Head,  medium  size  and  rather  long 2 

2.  Face,  dished,  narrow  between  horns  and  wide  between  eyes     l! 

3.  Ears,   large,   fringed    inside   with    light    colored    hair,    skin 

inside  of  ear  a  deep  orange  color 2 

4.  Nose,  black,   large  and  square   with  mouth   surrounded  by 

mealy  colored  band,  tongue  black 2 

5.  Eyes,  moderately  large,  full  and  bright 2 

6.  Horns,  short,  regularly  set  with  black  tips 2 

7.  Neck,  straight,  throat  clean,  neatly  joined  to  head,  shoulders 

of  good  length,  moderately  thin  at  the  withers 4 

8.  Chest,  low,  deep  and  full  between  and  back  of  fore  legs.  ...      0 

9.  Back,  level  to  setting  of  tail  and  broad  across  the  loin U 

10.  Ribs,  long  and  broad,  wide  apart  and  well  sprung  with  thin, 

arching  flanks 3 

11.  Abdomen,  large  and  deep   5 

12.  Hips  wide  apart,  rump  long  and  broad 4 

13.  Thighs,  wide,  quarters  not  thin 4 

14.  Legs,  short  and  straight  with  good  hoofs 2 

15.  Tail,  slender,  well  set  on,  with  good  switch 2 

16.  Hide  of  medium  thickness,  mellow  and  elastic 3 

17.  Color — shades  from  dark  to  light  brown,  at  some  seasons  of 

the  year  grey;  white  splashes  near  udder  not  objection- 
able, light  stripe  along  back.  White  splashes  on  body  or 
sides  objectionable.  Hair  between  horns  usually  lighter 
shade  than  body 4 

18.  Fore  udder,   wide,  deep,  well  rounded  but  not  pendulous, 

nor  fleshy,  extending  far  forward  on  the  abdomen 12 


Student's 
Score 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  115 

Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  Brown  Swiss  Cows    (continued) 


Student's 
Counts         Score 


19.  Rear  udder,  wide,  deep,  but  not  pendulous,  nor  fleshy,  ex- 

tending well  up  behind 12 

20.  Teats,  rather  large,  set  well  apart  and  hanging  straight 8 

21.  Milk  veins  large,  long,  tortuous,  elastic  and  entering  good 

wells 6 

22.  Disposition,  quiet   2 

23.  Size,  evidence  of  constitution,  and   stamina 5 


Total 


Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  Brown  Swiss  Bull 

Counts 

Head,  same  as  cow 2 

Face,  same  as  cow   2 

Expression,  full  of  vigor,  resolution  and  masculinity 3 

Ears,  same  as  cow 2 

Nose,  same  as  cow   2 

Eyes,  same  as  cow 2 

Horns,  same  as  cow   2 

Neck,  of  medium  length,  somewhat  arched,  large  and  strong 

in  muscles  on  top,  sloping  symmetrically  to  shoulders. 

Shoulders  large  and  strong,  smoothly  blending  into  body  10 

Chest,  same  as  cow   10 

Back,  same  as  cow  .  .  .  .  : 10 

Ribs  and  abdomen,  same  as  cow 10 

Hips,  same  as  cow 6 

Thighs,  same  as  cow 6 

Legs,  same  as  cow 2 

Tail,  same  as  cow 2 

Hide,  same  as  cow 3 

Color,  same  as  cow.     Dark,  smoky  skins  very  objectionable  4 

Scrotum  well  developed  and  strongly  carried 3 

Rudimentary   teats,   squarely   placed   wide   apart   and   free 

from  the  scrotum   6 

Milk  veins,  same  as  cow 6 

Disposition  quiet   3 

Size,  evidence  of  constitution  and   stamina 4 

Total    100 


Student's 
Score 


116  BROWN  SWISS 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  did  the  Brown  Swiss  breed  originate? 

2.  What  other  breed  in  Switzerland  is  of  more  importance  at  home? 

3.  Describe  the  pasture  conditions  and  habits  of  the  home  of  the  Brown 

Swiss. 

4.  Describe  the  Brown  Swiss  breed  as  to  color,  size,  form  and  temperament. 

5.  What  may  be  said  of  a  Brown  Swiss  calf  at  birth? 

6.  Is  the  Brown  Swiss  a  "dairy"  breed? 

7.  When  were  animals  of  this  breed  imported  into  America? 

8.  Where  are  Brown   Swiss  cattle  particularly  popular? 

9.  Compare  the  yearly  butter  yields  with  other  breeds. 

10.  What  places   in   American  agriculture  will  this  breed  fill  better  than 
any  other? 


CHAPTER  XIV 
SHORTHORN 

There  is  probably  no  other  breed  of  cattle  in  America  that  is 
favored  by  so  large  a  number  of  farmers  as  the  Shorthorn.  Her 
blood  is  the  foundation  of  much  of  the  common  or  grade  stock 
kept  throughout  the  entire  United  States,  predominating  in  the 
middle  and  north  central  states,  yet  well  represented  in  the 
herds  of  New  England,  the  south  and  the  far  west.  A  large 
portion  of  the  milk  which  has  made  Minnesota,  Iowa  and  Wis- 
consin well  known  as  dairy  states  has  been  drawn  from  grade 
Shorthorn  cows. 

Origin. — The  Shorthorn  is  a  breed  of  old  English  origin.  In 
the  northeastern  part  of  the  country  in  the  valley  of  the  River 
Tees  there  was  developed  by  selection  and  good  feeding  a  strain 
of  cattle  considerably  superior  to  those  in  the  neighboring  dis- 
tricts. Their  improvement  took  place  chiefly  in  the  three  coun- 
ties of  Durham,  York  and  Northumberland.  Early  in  the 
eighteenth  century  bulls  are  believed  to  have  been  imported  from 
Holland  by  a  Mr.  Dobinson.  Years  later  his  and  his  neighbors' 
herds  were  well  known  for  their  superiority  over  the  stock  of  the 
surrounding  country  which  had  been  more  largely  descended 
from  the  native  wild  animals  of  the  Island  or  from  stock  brought 
in  during  the  Roman  and  Norman  conquests. 

The  real  improvers,  almost  the  originators  of  the  breed,  may 
be  said  to  have  been  the  brothers  Charles  and  Robert  Colling, 
Robert  Bakewell,  Thomas  Bates,  Thomas  Booth  and  Amos 
Cruickshank.  Mr.  Bates  bred  for  milk  as  well  as  for  beef,  while 
Messrs.  Booth  and  Cruickshank  emphasized  the  meat-making 
quality.  To  these  men  and  others  who  followed  close  after  them, 
belongs  most  of  the  credit  for  starting  the  great  improvement  in 
livestock  which  has  meant  so  much  in  every  way,  not  only  to  all 
England  but  to  all  North  and  South  America,  South  Africa, 
Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  in  fact  to  much  of  the  civilized 
world  to-day.  Not  only  was  it  the  cattle  produced  but  also  the 
example,  the  pointing  out  of  the  possibility  to  other  men  for 

117 


118  SHORTHORN 

other  breeds  and  classes  of  livestock  that  made  their  work  so 
lasting. 

Importation  to  America  first  occurred  in  1783  by  Gough 
and  Miller  of  Virginia,  though  not  under  the  name  of  Shorthorn. 
In  1791  and  1796  Mr.  Heaton  brought  Shorthorns  to  New  York 
state,  then  for  the  next  fifty  years  importations  were  numerous. 
During  all  this  time  the  breed  was  multiplying  rapidly  and  being 
extended  westward  as  rapidly  as  the  country  was  developed. 
Thus  it  may  be  said  that  the  Shorthorn  breed  was  "  in  on  the 
ground  floor  "  in  America,  was  the  cow  of  the  cottagers  and  the 
frontiersmen.  This  unquestionably  accounts  for  a  part  of  its 
general  favor  to-day. 

The  adaptability  of  this  breed  is  excellent.  It  does  well  from 
the  tide  meadows  of  the  Atlantic  to  the  mountain  sides  in  the 
west,  and  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  Hudson  Bay. 

Body  Characteristics. — In  color  the  modern  Shorthorn  is 
white,  or  red  and  white,  or  roan.  The  size  is  large,  cows  weighing 
at  maturity  1300  to  1600  pounds  or  more,  and  bulls  from  2000  to 
2600  pounds.  In  build  they  are  generally  blocky  and  broad 
(Fig.  42).  Naturally  so,  since  "  all  of  the  really  great  British 
breeders  had  in  mind  the  importance  of  the  Shorthorn  as  a  beef 
producer  and  Cruickshank  gave  this  feature  special  distinction," 
and  since,  too,  the  cattle  business  of  America  has  until  recent 
years  been  largely  one  of  beef  raising  on  cheap  hinds  with  just 
enough  milk  to  furnish  the  home  table.  A  very  large  percent- 
age of  the  pure  bred  Shorthorns  in  America,  very  naturally,  now 
carry  strains  of  the  Scotch  or  Cruickshank  blood.  The  calves 
weigh  from  seventy-five  to  ninety  pounds  at  birth  and  are  com- 
paratively easy  to  raise. 

The  dairy  characteristics  of  the  present  American  Shorthorn 
cattle  are  very  variable.  Those  that  have  been  selected  for  milk 
as  well  as  for  beef  purposes  and  have  been  hand  milked  show 
considerable  of  the  essential  dairy  type  and  are  fair  milkers, 
while  those  herds  and  strains  in  which  the  Scotch  or  Cruickshank 
element  predominates  are  excellent  for  beef  but  lack  in  dairy 
power.  The  beef  Shorthorn,  however,  gives  more  milk  than  some 
of  the  other  beef  breeds  and  for  this  reason  start  their  calves  off 
in  excellent  shape.  Some  beef  producers  prefer  the  Shorthorn  for 


THE  DAIRY  CHARACTERISTICS 


119 


their  calf  feeding  ability  even  though  they  may  fall  a  little  short 
in  intensity  of  beef  form.  It  is  not  claimed,  however,  even  by  the 
breed's  fanciers  that  the  "  milking  "  Shorthorn  can  rival  the  best 


42. — A  good  type  milking  Shorthorn  bull,  property  of    University  of     A 

Agricultural  College.     (Courtesy  T.  G.  Paterson.) 
13. — Imported    milking  Shorthorn   cow  Bertha,   belonging  to  the   late  J. 
St.  Paul,  Minn.   Photo  by  author. 


120  SHORTHORN 

milk  breed  for  milk  production  nor  that  highest  beef  and  milk 
production  will  be  found  in  the  same  animal,  but  rather  that  she 
occupies  a  mid-way  position  in  the  scale,  being  fairly  good  at 
both  meat  and  milk  production  (Figs.  43  and  44). 

The  profitableness  of  such  a  combination  will  naturally  vary 
with  the  kind  of  farming  and  dairying  called  for  by  conditions 
and  the  likes  and  dislikes  of  the  owner.  A  full  considera- 
tion of  this  question  would  fill  a  large  chapter  in  a  book  on 
farm  management. 

Advanced  Registry.— With  "  the  aim  and  object  of  pro- 
moting the  interests  of  the  milking  type  of  Shorthorn  cattle  "  an 
advanced  registry  called  "  record  of  merit  list  "  was  established 
by  the  American  Milking  Shorthorn  Cattle  Club  which  was 
formed  in  December,  1912.  The  official  beginning  of  the  Record 
of  Merit  list  was  May  1st,  1015. 

The  rules  require  that,  to  be  admitted  to  the  record  of  merit 
list,  cows  must  yield  from  5250  pounds  of  milk  containing  210 
pounds  of  fat  when  starting  the  test  at  30  months  of  age,  up  to 
8000  pounds  of  milk  containing  300  pounds  of  fat  as  mature 
cows,  five  years  of  age  or  over. 

Two  classes  of  records  are  admitted,  A.  A.,  those  made  offi- 
cially by  representatives  of  an  Agricultural  College  or  Experi- 
ment Station,  and  A,  those  made  by  cow  testing  association 
representatives. 

The  first  milking  Shorthorn  year  book  appeared  under  date 
of  1915,  and  contained  a  goodly  number  of  records. 

The  best  ten  from  thirty-three,  class  A  list,  are  as  follows : 

Best  Ten  Class  A  Records,  Ranked  According  to  Fat  Production  Jan.  25,  1921 

Cow  (Name  and  Number)  Lbs.  Milk  Lbs.  Fat 

Snowdrop   647217    15550.8  691.59 

Doris  Clay  41118    17241.5  653.67 

Dairymaid    8th    16460.3  587.10 

Bare  Fashion  634770 17027.9  581.47 

Rose  of  Blackwood  3rd  36493  17564.0  569.7 

Victoria  228067   15483.7  569.54 

Comely  Beauty  211021   14021.1  564.67 

Welcome  Lass   211046    13560.9  563.1 

Graybird    574221     1 1886.4  555.0 

Overbrook  Ury  3rd  93655   10740.1  504.42 


ADVANCED  REGISTRY 


121 


;horthorn  cow,  owned  by  May  and  Otis,  Grandville  Center.  Pa. 


-r  m 


Fig.  45. — Good  type  milking  Shorthorn  cow  belonging  to  W.  C.  Davis.  Chester,  la. 


122  SHORTHORN 

The  average  of  the  thirty-three  yearly  records  reported  by 
testing  associations  is  8520  pounds  of  milk  containing  332 
pounds  of  fat,  while  the  215  private  records  reported  in  the  same 
volume  range  from  5500  pounds  of  milk  up  to  16,200  pounds  of 
milk,  fat  not  recorded.  The  lactation  period  recorded  for  these 
215  unofficial  records  is  from  108  to  365  days  with  an  average  of 
344  days.  Twenty-nine  yearly  or  lactation  periods  (omitting 
two  unusually  short  ones)  averaged  5600  pounds  of  milk  and  221 
pounds  of  the  fat  at  the  Iowa  Station.  The  fat  average  was  3.96 
percent  (Fig.  45). 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  did  the  Shorthorn  breed  originate? 

2.  What  breeders'  names  stand  out  clearly  in  the  history  of  this  breed'! 

What  did  they  do? 

3.  When  were  animals  of  this  breed  first  brought  to  America? 

4.  What  are  its  adaptations? 

5.  Describe  a  Shorthorn  as  to  color,  size,  form,  temperament  and  grazing 

qualities. 

6.  Tell  why  Shorthorn  cows  of  this  country  are  so  very  variable  as  dairy 

cows. 

7.  What  is  the  "  record  of  merit  list  "  ? 

8.  How  do  the  ten  yearly  records  compare  with  other  breeds? 


CHAPTER  XV 

FRENCH-CANADIAN 

The  breed  of  dairy  cattle  which  can,  more  nearly  than  any 
other,  claim  America  as  its  home  is  the  one  generally  known  as 
the  French-Canadian.  Just  when  the  first  stock  of  this  blood 
reached  America  is  not  absolutely  known,  though  thought  to  be 
about  1620,  or  very  soon  thereafter.  At  any  rate,  in  1665,  when 
other  animals  were  brought  from  Normandy  and  Brittany  to 
Quebec,  cows  were  there  discovered  having  the  same  character- 
istics as  those  imported.  The  stock  unquestionably  came  from 
Northern  France  with  the  early  settlers  in  the  province  of  Que- 
bec, Canada.  Although  there  was  for  many  years  no  particular 
endeavor  made  to  keep  the  blood  pure  it  did  remain  essentially 
pure,  however,  because  of  the  very  limited  intercourse  which 
those  pioneers  had  with  the  none  too  friendly  English-speaking 
people  in  the  colonies. 

For  a  period  of  about  200  years  the  descendants  of  these  early 
importations  have  served  the  pioneers,  cottagers,  and  small 
farmers  of  eastern  Quebec.  While  sharing  the  pioneer  life  of  the 
people  who  brought  them  they  developed  wonderful  hardihood 
and  health,  and  yet  retained  in  reasonably  good  measure  their 
dairy  qualities. 

Since  1886  the  interests  of  the  breed  have  been  fostered 
and  the  breed  itself  materially  improved  by  the  French-Canadian 
Cattle  Breeders'  Association. 

Body  Characteristics. — The  size  of  the  French-Canadian  is 
about  that  of  the  Jersey,  which  breed  they  so  very  closely  resem- 
ble. Cows  weigh  from  700  to  900  pounds,  though  individuals 
reach  greater  weight,  and  the  bulls  at  maturity  weigh  from  1600 
to  2000  pounds  (Fig.  46).  Though  still  rather  coarse  and  with 
an  unfinished  appearance,  they  are  reasonably  straight  at  top  line, 
with  strong  broad  hips  and  full  chests.  Their  color,  though 
ordinarily  termed  black,  is  not  a  true  black  in  the  sense  of 
the  Holstein,  but  rather  a  deep  seal-brown-black.     They  often 

123 


124 


FRENCH-CANADIAN 


though  not  always,  have  an  orange  or  brownish  line  down  the 
back.  The  young  stock  is  frequently  of  lighter  color,  showing 
nearly  a  dark  orange  red.  The  calves  of  this  breed  are  exceed- 
ingly hardy  and  easy  to  raise,  but  slow  in  reaching  maturity,  but 
like  the  Brown  Swiss  and  other  slowly  developing  breeds  live 
and  breed  to  an  unusually  old  age. 

Dairy  Characteristics. — As  a  breed,  the  French-Canadian 
cow  yields  only  a  moderate  amount  of  milk.     Records,  however, 


w  I^XmkI 

_^^H 

■    -—  •        ' — wmm 

'  ' 

[  1 

-The  champion  French-Canadian  bull,  Denis  Lord,  four 
Experimental  Farm,  Quebec,  Can.) 


of  individuals  in  the  herd  best  managed  often  show  a  milk  pro- 
duction of  5000  to  6000  pounds  in  a  year  and  10,767  has  been 
reported  authoritatively.  The  quality  of  the  milk  ranks  nearly 
equal  to  that  of  the  Guernsey,  a  test  of  5  per  cent  being  not  at  all 
uncommon  for  the  animals  yielding  a  medium  amount. 

The  Advanced  Registry,  called  Record  of  Performance,  was 
established  in  1907.  The  best  ten  yearly  records  officially  re- 
ported up  to  January  1,  1921,  are  as  follows: 


ADVANCED  REGISTRY 


125 


French-Canadian    Cattle   Breeders'   Association 

Lbs.  Milk  Lbs.  Fat 

Aromaz    (1597)    13219  631.00 

Florida    (1359)     9872  514.00 

Fanchette    F.     ( 1685)     10657  480.00 

Denise  Fortune  (3807)   10133  471.00 

Filie   (2130)    10767  453.00 

Denise  Championne  13th   10140  413.00 

Manette-de-St.  Denis    (3413)    9215  409.00 

Finette  2nd  (218)    9747  403.00 

Fanchette  E.   ( 16S5 )    8733  374.00 

Belle  D.   ( 3667 )    8879  368.00 


Percentage 
of  Fat 
4.80 
5.20 
4.5 
4.65 
4.20 
4.07 
4.44 
4.02 
3.71 
4.14 


Fig.  47. — A  champion  French-Canadian  cow.  Fortune  4th,  d'Ottawa  946.  Record, 
one  year,  milk,  9135  pounds,  test,  4.67  per  cent  fat,  428  pounds.  (Courtesy  Dominion 
Experimental  Farm,  Ottawa,  Ontario,  Canada.) 

Requirements  for  Admission  into  Record  of  Performance 

Lbs.  Milk  Lbs.  Fat 

Mature  cows 6800  306 

Four  year  old  class 6000  270 

Three  year  old  class 5200  234 

Two  year  old  class 4400  198 


126  FRENCH-CANADIAN 

This  breed  has  the  hardy  qualities  of  the  Ayrshire,  with  the 
added  advantage  of  yielding  a  richer  milk  and  of  being  both 
easier  to  handle  as  animals  and  more  conveniently  milked.  Their 
teats  are  universally  large  and  -well  placed. 

The  French-Canadian  cattle  are  aptly  said  to  be  the  "  Jerseys 
of  the  north."  Their  place  in  the  eastern  provinces  is  very  sim- 
ilar, indeed,  to  the  one  occupied  by  the  Jersey  farther  south. 
They  should  be  looked  upon,  however,  as  a  "  breed  in  the  rough." 
With  the  excellent  foundation  possessed,  however,  there  is  no 
reason  why,  if  skillfully  bred  and  handled,  the  breed  should  not 
become  refined  and  still  retain  a  highly  economic  place.  While 
there  is  little  reason  why  this  breed  should  be  introduced  seri- 
ously into  the  United  States  to  satisfy  any  special  need,  there  is 
good  reason  why  it  should  be  retained  and  developed  in  Quebec, 
Canada,  and  there  continue  to  serve  mankind  (Fig.  47). 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  breed  of  dairy  cattle  can  claim  America  as  its  home? 

2.  Under  what  circumstances  were  the  ancestors  of  the  French-Canadian 

breed  brought  to  this  country? 

3.  From  what  country  did  they  come? 

4.  Describe  a  French-Canadian  cow  as  to  color,  size,  form  and  disposition. 

5.  Discuss  the  dairy  qualities  of  this  breed. 

6.  Compare  records  with  other  breeds. 

7.  What  may  reasonably  be  expected  of  the  French-Canadian  breed? 


CHAPTER  XVI 
DUTCH  BELTED 

The  peculiarly  marked  breed  of  dairy  cattle  known  in  this 
country  as  the  Dutch  Belted,  because  of  their  color  markings,  are 
the  production  of  the  skill  of  the  breeders  in  North  Holland. 
Something  more  than  200  years  ago  the  nobility  of  Holland  for 
some  reason  fancied  cattle  of  black  and  white  color,  but  seem- 
ingly chose  that  the  white  should  be  in  one  piece  extending  around 
the  middle  of  the  animal.  In  Holland  this  breed  goes  by  the 
name  of  "  Lahenvelden,"  which  means  white  field,  but  is  also 
said  to  convey  the  idea  of  the  "  white  body  with  black  ends." 
These  animals  are,  in  all  probability,  closely  related  to  the  Hol- 
steins  or  the  descendants  of  the  animals  from  which  the  present 
Holsteins  have  sprung.  The  Hampshire  hogs  of  America  and 
England,  supposed  to  have  originated  in  Hampshire,  England, 
and  also  the  Lahenvelden  poultry  of  England  and  America,  both 
of  which  have  the  white  band  about  the  middle  with  black  extrem- 
ities, are  also,  in  all  probability,  the  production  of  Holland  skill. 
From  a  study  of  the  size  and  general  characteristics  of  the  Dutch 
Belted  cattle,  it  would  seem  evident  that  considerable  difficulty 
had  been  experienced  in  the  establishment  of  so  odd  a  marking. 
No  record  is  available,  however,  indicating  the  amount  of  in- 
breeding or  breeding  to  physically  inferior  animals  which  may 
have  been  necessary  during  the  earlier  days  of  the  establishment 
of  the  breed.  The  by-laws  of  breed  associations  of  the  present 
time  conclude  with :  "  White  spots  on  an  animal  other  than  the 
feet,  the  belt,  and  the  tip  of  switch  considered  a  disqualification 
for  registry.  Color  other  than  black  and  white  or  deformed  or 
constitutionally  defective,  considered  a  disqualification.  Beef 
form  or  absence  of  milk  form  emphatically  objectionable." 

Importation  to  America. — Although  the  breed  attracted 
attention  in  Europe  as  early  as  1750  there  is  no  record  of  any 
having  been  introduced  to  America  until  1838,  when  D.  A. 
Haight  brought  over  a  few  animals.     In  1848  a  second  lot  was 

127 


128 


DUTCH  BELTED 


obtained.  These  were  kept  largely  in  Xew  York  State,  and 
from  these  have  descended  a  good  portion  of  the  animals  now 
in  America  of  that  breed.  In  1S40  P.  T.  Bammn  secured  a 
number  of  Dutch  Belted  cattle  for  show  purposes  but  soon 
retired  them  to  his  farm  in  Orange  County,  Xew  York.  Within 
a  comparatively  few  years  several  importers  have  introduced  the 
animals  to  Canada,  Mexico,  and  Cuba,  as  well  as  having  brought 
a  few  more  into  the  United  States.     At  present,  though  more 


Fia.  48.— Champion  Dutch  Belted  bull,  Knox  Em  All,  No.  646.     (Owned  by  E.  J.  Kirby, 
Covert,  Mich.) 

numerous  in  the  east,  representative  herds  may  be  found  in  vari- 
ous places  in  the  south  and  a  few  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  There  are 
now  about  500  breeders  of  Dutch  Belted  cattle  in  the 
United  States. 

Body  Characteristics. — Although  related  to  the  Holstein  the 
Dutch  Belted  breed  falls  far  short  of  attaining  to  the  same  size. 
Mature  cows  weigh  about  800  to  1000  pounds,  and  the  bulls  from 
1500  to  1800  pounds.  Their  color  is  invariably  jet  black  with  a 
white  band  about  their  middle.    No  white  is  tolerated  in  the  field 


BODY  CHARACTERISTICS 


129 


Fia.  49. — Champion  Dutch  Eelted  cow,  Julia  Marlowe,  No.  1187.    (Owned  by  Mrs.  Jennie 
Strader,  Ceres,  Cal.) 


B'1 .'  ."  .   ■* 

* 

■;ttm 

m*< : 

r&^&tffjgfp 

HIHHIJ^H 

™^*»iw^ 

'^Tv^'  "> 

, '  --""  <-l  -4 

Fig.  50. — Tilrua,   1^02,  a  champion   Dutch  Belted  cow. 


130  DUTCH  BELTED 

of  black,  nor  black  in  the  field  of  white.  In  Holland  white  feet 
are  permitted  but  they  are  objected  to  in  the  United  States. 
They  are  very  striking  in  appearance  (Fig.  48).  Their  Tem- 
perament is  mild  though  not  so  placid  as  the  Holstein. 

Dairy  Characteristics. — Although  the  Dutch  Belted  cattle 
are  an  old  breed  in  Holland  comparatively  little  attention  has 
been  given  to  them  in  America  and  until  recently  those  that  were 
maintained  in  this  country  were  kept  largely  for  their  looks 
(Figs.  49  and  50).  The  advanced  registry  for  the  breed  was 
established  in  May,  1014.  Since  that  time  official  records  have 
been  made.    A  few  of  the  best  are  here  given. 

Yearly  Record  Dutch  Belted  Aged  Cows 

Name                                                     Age  Milk-Lbs.  Fat-Lbs. 

Peapack  Anna 4  Years  13159.0  484.31 

Peapack  Duchess Mature  13065.0  447.64 

Glenbeulah  Bearlty Mature  10307.5  404.86 

Peapack  Pam 3  Years  106S1.0  353.17 

Peapack  Dawn Mature  9345.0  348.87 

Ferndell    Mature  9332.3  333.21 

Peapack  Prejudice   4  Years  9243.0  328.22 

Peapack    Princess    2  Years  8745.0  312.17 

Peapack    Polly    2  Years  7332.0  254.33 

Euniel   2  Years  8224.7  239.49 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  chief  characteristic  of  the  Dutch  Belted  breed? 

2.  Where  was  it  developed ?     How? 

.'!.  When  were  animals  of  this  breed  brought  to  America? 

4.  Where  are  Dutch  Belted  cattle  chiefly  kept? 

5.  How  many  breeders  are  there  in  the  United  States? 

6.  Describe  a  Dutch  Belted  cow  as  to  color,  size  and  temperament. 

7.  Compare   the   advanced   registry   records   of   this   breed   with   those   of 

other  breeds. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
MILCH  GOATS 

The  goat  has  been  one  of  the  faithful  servants  of  man  since 
the  dawn  of  history,  and  still  continues  as  the  efficient  converter 
of  weeds,  brush  and  various  grasses  into  nutritious  milk  for 
infant  or  adult,  or  into  strong  wool  or  mohair  for  garment  or  rug- 
making,  or  into  savory  flesh  for  food.  Whether  goats  were 
domesticated  and  developed  at  a  period  earlier  than  cattle  is  not 
accurately  known,  but  it  is  highly  probable  that  such  was  the  case 
because  of  the  fact  that  they  are  smaller  and  milder  in  disposition. 

Milch  goats  are  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  common  in  most  of  the 
countries  of  Europe  as  are  dairy  cows.  They  have  been  devel- 
oped to  high  points  of  usefulness  in  many  separate  sections  of  the 
country,  though  those  best  known  in  America  (Fig.  51)  are 
the  descendants  of  one  or  more  of  the  breeds  which  originated,  or 
were  improved  in  Switzerland.  But  in  northern  Africa,  Russia, 
Norway,  Germany,  France  and  Spain,  milch  goats  are  to  be 
found.  They  have  likewise  been  introduced  into  other  sections 
of  the  world  and  now  occupy  a  small  but  useful  place  in  most  of 
the  Spanish-American  countries. 

The  Goat  Maligned. — There  is  probably  no  single  animal  in 
America  which  has  been  the  butt  of  more  common  jokes  than  the 
goat.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  most  of  the  goats 
known  in  our  villages  and  cities  are  of  the  common,  scrub  sort 
which  are  thought  to  be  the  inferior  descendants  of  those  brought 
to  Mexico  by  the  Spanish  in  the  early  days.  They  are  about  as 
much  like  the  modern  pure  bred  milch  goats  as  old  Texas  range 
cattle  are  like  Jerseys.  The  class  of  animals  kept  for  the  pur- 
pose of  cheese  making,  largely  in  foreign  countries,  is  scarcely 
known  in  America.  The  fact  that  the  goat  is  spoken  of  as  the 
"  poor  man's  cow  "  certainly  does  not  encourage  their  being  more 
generally  kept,  The  term  is  far  from  apt  in  America,  however, 
for  the  reason  that  a  good  milch  goat  costs  as  much  as  a  fair 
cow.     In  view  of  the  general  attitude  toward  this  animal  they 

131 


132 


MILCH  GOATS 


should  be  called,  rather  the  "  brave  man's  cow."  The  humble 
position  held  by  this  animal  in  America  is  not  warranted  by  sci- 
entific findings  nor  yet  by  practical  experience. 

Dairy  Type  in  Goats. — It  is  certainly  more  than  a  coinci- 
dence that  the  type  of  the  animal,  developed  through  long  ages 
of  experience,  which  is  found  to  be  the  most  profitable  as  a  milk 
producer  possesses  a  type  essentially  very  similar  to  that  known 


Fig.  51. — Imp.  Fanette,  No.  151,  the  champion  milk  producer  of  the  Toggenburg 
breed  in  America.  She  produced  in  one  year  2680  pounds  of  milk,  or  nearly  twenty  times 
her  own  weight.  Note  that  she  possesses  the  essentials  of  the  dairy  type.  (.Reproduced  by 
courtesy  of  "Littlelands  in  America,"  San  Francisco,  Cal.) 

as  the  dairy  type  in  cows.  The  Saanan  doe  represented  in 
figure  54,  and  the  Toggenburg  doe,  another  Swiss  breed,  shown  in 
figure  52,  agree  essentially  with  the  Spanish  Maltese  and  with 
the  African  Nubian  and  show  the  extreme  dairy  type. 

A  study  of  these  types  reveals  the  presence  of  a  large  capacity 
for  food  consumption  coupled  with  the  angularity  and  loose  con- 
struction of  frame  work  which  are  essentiallv  different  from  the 


TOGGENBURG 


133 


form  best  adapted  for  meat  production.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  the  compact  animals,  whether  cattle,  horses,  hogs,  or 
sheep,  are  known  to  be  the  "  easy  keepers,"  which  means  "  easy 
fatteners."  Coupled  with  the  capacious  body  and  thin  angular 
muscular  development,  the  immense  udder  development  will 
be  observed. 

Breeds. — Goats,  varying  in  type  all  the  way  from  the  com- 
pact form  of  the  mutton  and  wool  producing  varieties  to  the 
thin,  angular,  strictly  dairy  goats,  are  to  be  found  in  many  sec- 

Fig.  52.  Fig.  53. 


Fig.  52. — Fanette,   the   Toggenburg   prize   doe.      Note   wonderful  development   of  udder. 

(Courtesy  the  owner,  Winthrop  Howlund,  Kedlands,  Cal.; 

Fig.  53. — A  well-marked  loggenburg  doe. 

tions  of  the  country  and  are  known  by  a  great  variety  of  names. 
The  various  breeds  have  not  yet  been  classified  and  studied  as 
have  the  different  races  and  breeds  of  cattle.  The  following  are 
brief  descriptions  of  the  dairy  goats  best  known  in  America : 

Toggenburg. — This  breed  originated  in  the  Toggenburg 
Valley  of  Switzerland,  in  the  northeast  section  of  the  republic. 
They  are  of  medium  size,  weighing  in  the  neighborhood  of  125 
pounds  at  maturity,  rather  slender,  hornless,  and  short-haired. 
Their  color  is  a  peculiar  shade  of  brown  or  mouse  color  with 
white  markings,  distributed  with  great  regularity.  The  legs  be- 
low the  knees  and  hocks  should  be  white,  and  a  white  stripe  runs 


134  MILCH  GOATS 

down  either  side  of  the  face  and  around  the  ears  (Fig.  53).  They 
are  hardy,  gentle,  and  tractable  and  are  said  to  yield  four  quarts 
of  milk  per  day  when  fresh. 

Saanen. — This  pure  white  breed  was  originated  and  is  now 
kept  in  the  Saanen  Valley  in  Switzerland.  It  is  a  breed  of  com- 
paratively large  animals,  a  mature  doe  occasionally  weighing  150 
pounds.  They  are  hornless  and  being  short-haired  their  angular 
form  is  prominent  (Fig.  54).  The  quantity  of  milk  accredited 
to  this  breed  is  from  three  to  four  quarts  per  day  with  isolated 
cases  of  five  to  six  quarts,  though  two  or  three  quarts  would 
probably  be  more  nearly  an  average  for  the  nine  to  twelve 
months  of  lactation  period  or  about  1800  pounds  of  milk  for 
the  year. 

Spanish  Maltese. — This  animal  from  the  Island  of  Malta  is 
of  two  varieties,  the  short-haired  and  the  long-haired.  This  is 
the  breed  wdiich  has  been  so  extensively  introduced  into  Mexico 
and  other  Spanish-American  countries,  and  the  one  from  which 
our  common  goat-  was  probably  descended.  Some  varieties  of  this 
breed  grow  horns,  while  others  do  not.  They  are  about  the  size 
of  the  ordinary  Angora,  and  are  better  adapted  to  warm  than  to 
cold  climates.  Their  milking  proclivities  vary  considerably 
with  the  breeding. 

Milk  Records. — A  goat  which  gives  less  than  a  quart  a  day  is 
not  to  be  considered  a  good  milch  animal.  If  it  yields  two  quarts 
it  is  a  good  animal,  provided  the  period  of  lactation  is  nine 
months  or  more.  In  the  European  countries  the  goats  which 
yield  from  three  to  five  quarts  a  day  are  numerous  and  the  period 
of  lactation  is  a  long  one  (Figs.  51  and  54). 

It  is  a  good  goat  of  any  breed  that  will  average  two  and  one- 
half  quarts  (5.25  pounds)  of  milk  a  day  for  eight  or  nine 
months  of  the  year.  One  that  will  give  more  than  this  is 
specially  desirable.  The  Angora  goat,  which  is  not  considered  a 
good  milch  animal,  gives  from  two  to  three  quarts  of  very  rich 
milk  but  for  a  comparatively  short  time.  The  Nubian,  or  Afri- 
can, produces  from  five  to  ten  quarts  per  day.  The  yield  of  the 
best  goats  of  Switzerland  averages  about  four  quarts  daily.  This 
amount  is  not  produced  without  good  care  and  feed,  however. 


MILK  RECORDS 


135 


Fig.  54. — Imported    Sa 
members  of  the  breed 


re  A.  M.  G.  R.  A.  8 
ad  by  Robert  R.  Gla 


he  most  valuable 
les,  California. 


The  yield  of  milk  varies  greatly  as  with  cows,  between 
breeds  and  individuals. 

Individuals  are  reported  which  have  produced  as  much  as 
2400  pounds  of  milk,  testing  about  4  per  cent  fat  or  96  pounds 
butter  fat  in  one  year.  This  would  make  about  115  pounds  of 
butter  or  240  pounds  of  cheese. 

The  Toggenburg  doe,  Geneva,  reported  by  the  California 
Experiment  Station,  was  Grand  Champion  at  the  recent  Panama- 
Pacific  Exposition.  She  weighs  on  an  average  127  pounds  and 
in  312  days  yielded  2158  pounds  of  milk  containing  72.8  pounds 
of  fat  and  256.34  pounds  total  milk  solids.  Two  others  tested 
for  a  year  yielded  less.  One  half-breed,  Delia,  weighing  only 
104  pounds,  produced  only  1283  pounds  of  milk  and  49.73 
pounds  of  fat  in  a  single  lactation  period  of  310  days;  and 
Iledda,  a  pure  bred  Toggenburg,  two  years  old,  produced  1118.0 
pounds  of  milk  containing  40.7  pounds  of  fat. 

The  New  York  (Geneva)  Experiment  Station  has  tested  a 
few  milch  goats  for  infant  feeding  purposes.  One  Saanen  doe 
gave  1845  pounds  of  milk  in  one  year  on  $15.82  worth  of  feed, 


136  MILCH  GOATS 

charging  $3  for  pasture.     This  is  about  922  quarts,  at  a  feed  cost 
of  about  1.7  cents  per  quart. 

The  Toggenburg  doe,  Fanette  (Fig.  51),  is  one  of  the  best 
known  milch  goats  in  America.  She  produced,  in  one  year,  2680 
pounds  of  milk,  or  nearly  twenty  times  her  own  weight.  This  is 
more  than  half  as  much  as  the  average  cow  of  this  country  pro- 
duces. It  was  enough  milk  to  supply  two  families  with  two 
quarts  per  day  each  for  a  year.  It  would  make  about  100 
pounds  of  butter  or  268  pounds  of  cheese.  This  milk,  if  sold 
at  25  cents  per  quart,  would  bring  $335.  In  some  places  goat's 
milk  sells  at  50  cents  per  quart. 

Milk    Records 

Breed  of  Goat                     Name  Wt.,  Lbs.  Milk 

Toggenburg Fanette  136  2680 

Toggenburg Geneva  127  2158 

Toggenburg   (half  breed)  .  .Delia  104  1283 

Toggenburg Hedda  (2  yr.  old)  110  1118 

Saanen (at  Geneva,  N.  Y.)  1845 

The  Nature  of  the  Product. — Goat's  milk-fat  produces 
rather  an  inferior  butter,  especially  in  color,  body  and  grain,  but 
the  milk  is  said  to  be  remarkably  valuable  for  feeding  delicate 
infants.  Milk  for  such  purpose  often  sells  for  25  to  50  ceuts  per 
quart.  It  also  serves  as  a  household  milk  supply,  for  cooking 
purposes  as  well  as  milk  for  direct  consumption. 

Composition  of  Goats'  Milk 
Authority  Water  Fat       Casein  and  Albumen 

Renesse   85.50  4. SO  5.00 

Land'w  intli    85.60  4.60  4.80 

Hoffman    86.19  4.73  3.68 

X.  Y.  (Geneva  Sta.)   87.88  3.82  3.21 


It  has  been  shown  that  the  milch  goat  will  yield  a  food  unit  in 
milk  solids  fully  as  economically  as  a  good  dairy  cowT,  if  not  more 
so,  for  the  feed  consumed  and  has  the  added  advantage  in  relish- 
ing various  edible  weeds.  She  also  may  be  pastured  on  so  small 
a  lot  or  pasture  that  but  for  her  all  of  the  forage  on  that  area 


Sugar 

Ash 

4.00 

.70 

4.30 

4.50 

.00 

4.54 

.55 

QUESTIONS  137 

would  have  gone  to  waste.  The  milch  goat  is  now  especially 
needed  about  the  mill  towns  of  New  England  and  the  south, 
and  about  mining  towns  in  all  sections  of  the  country.  The 
State  Experiment  Stations  of  California  and  Geneva,  New 
York,  and  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  are 
studying  the  question  of  milch  goats. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  our  oldest  record  of  the  use  of  goats  as  milch  animals? 

2.  Where  were  most  of  the  breeds  of  milch  goats  in  America  developed? 

3.  Why  are  goats  not  more  used  in  this  country? 

4.  Compare  the  dairy  type  of  the  milch  goat  with  that  of   an   intense 

dairy  cow. 

5.  Name  and  describe  the  two  principal  breeds  of  milch  goats. 

6.  How  much  milk  will  a  good  goat  yield? 

7.  Name  the  milch  goat  that  now  holds  the  United  States  Championship 

for  production.     How  much  did  she  yield? 

8.  How  does  the  composition  of  goat's  milk  compare  with  cow's  milk? 

9.  For  what  is  it  especially  valuable? 

10.  In  what  regions  and  sections  are  goats  most  needed  in  America? 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
STARTING  A  DAIRY  HERD 

The  solution  of  the  problem  confronting  any  young  man 
who  contemplates  starting  a  herd  of  cows  to  be  used  for  dairy 
purposes  will  very  naturally  differ  with  local  circumstances,  but 
assuming  only  moderate  means  and  the  necessity  for  getting 
profitable  working  stock  at  the  earliest  time  possible,  the  follow- 
ing method  will  generally  be  found  the  most  profitable : 

Foundation  Stock. — If  the  prospective  dairy  fanner  has  no 
animals  of  any  sort  and  is,  therefore,  free  to  select,  it  is  highly 
important  that  he  bear  in  mind  clearly  the  thoroughly  proven 
value  of  the  dairy  type  animal,  that  is,  the  one  showing  capacity 
for  the  consumption  of  feed,  with  spare  and  angular  form,  denot- 
ing absence  of  too  great  a  flesh-forming  tendency,  with  udder 
and  milk  veins  developed  adequately  to  balance  the  other  parts 
of  the  body  and  an  alert  temperament  and  good  constitution. 
The  purchaser  should  not  overlook  the  fact  that  the  qualities 
desired  are  more  likely  to  be  found  and  far  more  likely  to  be 
transmitted  to  future  workers  if  grades  of  some  of  the  standard 
dairy  breeds  are  selected. 

The  prospective  dairy  fanner  who  already  has  on  hand  a 
herd  of  good,  fair,  and  indifferent  grades  of  no  particular  breed- 
ing, should  bear  in  mind  first,  that  it  is  a  very  poor  cow  indeed 
which  is  not  better  than  no  cow  at  all  on  the  farm;  that  cows 
vary  tremendously  in  their  ability  to  return  profit,  and  that  life 
is  too  short  to  make  it  wise  to  plod  along  with  the  inferior  cow 
any  longer  than  is  necessary  to  secure  animals  of  higher  quality. 
Working  on  this  basis,  therefore,  the  one  starting  in  the  business 
with  a  mixed  herd  of  unknown  quality  should  keep  the  animals 
he  has  until  such  time  as  he  has  good  evidence  to  prove  that 
certain  members  of  the  herd  should  be  disposed  of  and  raise  his 
stock  from  the  better  half  of  the  herd.  To  improve  such  a  herd 
a  strong-blooded  bull  of  the  breed  desired  should  be  placed 
at  its  head. 
138 


SELECTION  OF  THE  BULL  139 

The  Jersey  cow,  if  well  handled,  will  produce  butter  fat  more 
cheaply  per  pound  than  any  other  breed  in  America,  but  being 
sensitive  to  treatment  and  best  adapted  to  a  moderate  climate  she 
requires  comfortable  housing.  When  such  is  provided,  how- 
ever, the  Jersey  may  be  kept  in  any  agricultural  region. 

The  Holstein  cow  ordinarily  yields  more  fat  and  a  much 
greater  amount  of  skim  milk.  While  it  is  true  that  the  cost 
of  producing  a  pound  of  fat  is  higher  than  with  the  breeds  yield- 
ing a  richer  milk,  it  is  likewise  true  that  the  skim  milk  has  high 
value  on  the  livestock  farm.  The  animals  of  this  breed  are 
rather  better  adapted  to  withstand  the  conditions  practically 
certain  to  obtain  on  farms  where  the  field  operations  are  of  first 
consideration.  The  Holstein  animals  work  in  exceedingly  well 
on  those  farms  which  produce  grain  and  hogs  as  well  as  cream 
or  butter  for  the  market. 

The  Guernsey  and  Ayrshire  breeds  have  their  peculiarities, 
as  explained  in  the  chapters  on  those  breeds,  and  which  fit  them 
for  particular  niches.  The  temperament  and  sentiment  of  the 
individual  farmer  certainly  are  of  importance  in  the  choice  of  a 
breed,  but  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer  these  more  or  less 
sentimental  facts  should  be  subordinated  to  the  adaptability  of 
the  breed  to  the  climate,  to  the  type  of  dairying  to  be  carried  on, 
and  in  practice  to  the  majority  sentiment,  of  the  neighborhood. 
It  is  being  everywhere  clearly  demonstrated  that  animals  of  all 
breeds  have  developed  not  only  greater  individual  qualities  in 
those  communities  where  a  goodly  number  of  that  breed  is  kept, 
but  that  they  also  have  greater  market  value  per  unit  of  quality. 
The  individual  cows  of  a  Holstein  herd,  for  instance,  located  in 
a  Jersey  neighborhood  would  not  have  the  market  value  that  the 
same  animal  would  if  surrounded  by  animals  of  their  own  breed. 
The  same  is  true  of  all  the  other  dairy  breeds  when  too 
widely  scattered. 

Selection  of  the  Bull. — In  starting  a  herd  of  working  dairy 
cows  there  is  probably  no  single  problem  of  greater  importance, 
nor  one  which  offers  greater  difficulties,  than  the  correct  selec- 
tion of  the  herd  bull.  With  a  herd  of  low-producing  animals  in 
the  hands  of  an  owner  of  limited  means,  it  is  not  infrequently 


140  STARTING  A  DAIRY  HERD 

wisest,  and  in  the  long  rim  most  economical,  to  purchase  a  high 
grade  bull,  not  any  high  grade,  but  one  which  shows  the  breed 
characteristics  strongly,  has  individual  vigor  and  constitution 
and  is  from  a  high-producing  dam.  The  fact  that  cows  with 
which  he  is  to  be  mated  can  never  produce  stock  for  registration 
makes  it  entirely  immaterial  whether  the  sire  has  "  papers  "  or 
not.  The  use  of  a  grade  sire  is  not  recommended  on  cows  of 
higher  development  and  not  where  pure  animals  may  be  pur- 
chased at  reasonable  figures.  Frequently  second-hand,  pure  bred 
bulls  may  be  purchased  at  beef  prices.  Young  animals,  especially 
of  the  Guernsey  breed,  are  occasionally  sold  cheaply  because  of 
having  a  "  smoky  "  frill  about  the  muzzle,  or  having  more  or 
less  dark  hairs  about  the  head  and  throat.  This  is  supposed  to 
indicate  partial  reversion  to  some  prehistoric  ancestor  and  since 
it  is  not  the  color  desired  in  the  modem  breed  such  animals  do  not 
become  show  animals  themselves,  nor  are  they  likely  to  produce 
such.  Some  of  the  strongest  working  blood  of  the  breed,  how- 
ever, are  characterized  by  this  off-color.  Farmers  desiring  pure 
Guernsey  stock  to  work  upon  a  grade  herd  will  do  well  to  look  for 
such  animals.  Pure  bred  Holstein  bulls  are  occasionally  pure 
white  and  can  therefore  not  be  registered.  Such  would  mate 
well  with  a  herd  of  red  and  white  grades. 

It  is  agreed  that  the  points  to  be  looked  for  in  selecting  an 
animal  are  constitution,  thrift,  masculinity,  and  trueness  to 
breed  type,  or  in  other  words  the  individuality  of  the  animal 
(Fig.  55).  The  next  point,  one  which  some  breeders  would 
put  first,  is  the  matter  of  record  or  power  of  performance  on  the 
part  of  the  dam  and  granddam,  and  as  many  other  generations 
back  of  this  as  possible.  Such  an  animal  then  in  addition  to 
having  the  prepotency  of  pure  blood  will  have  the  strong  individ- 
uality, or  what  may  be  termed  personality,  which  will  increase 
the  likelihood  that  his  daughters  will  resemble  his  mother  and 
grandmother  in  ability  to  produce  abundantly.  A  goodly  num- 
ber of  instances  are  on  record  indicating  that  some  sires  have 
possessed  such  wonderful  prepotency  as  to  have  almost  unlimited 
value,  while  other  animals  have  done  positive  harm  under  the 
same  or  similar  conditions. 


COMMUNITY  BREEDING 


141 


« The  ideal  pedigree  must  show  performance  as  well  as;  mere 
relationship..  The  following  Guernsey  pedigree  is  considered  a 
good  one  in  this  respect  (page  142). 

Larger  records  have  been  made  than  those  indicated  in  the 
pedigree,  yet  those  are  good,  and  the  fact  that  uniform  high 
milkers  are  on  both  sides  increases  the  likelihood  that  the  prog- 
eny of  May  King  of  Linda  Vista  will  be  strong,  consistent 
producers. 


Fig.  55. — Starlights  Excelsior  of  Jean   Du  Luth,   a  champion    Guernsey  bull.       A  very 
promising  type  to  use  as  head  of  a  herd.       (Courtesy  G.  P.  Grout,  Duluth,   Minn.) 

Community  Breeding. — One  income  from  the  keeping  of 
pure  bred  cows  is  the  increased  amount  of  milk,  butter  and  by- 
products obtained  from  them,  but  a  second  profitable  source  of 
revenue  is  the  sale  of  breeding  stock.  At  present  there  is  a  good 
healthy  demand  for  more  livestock  to  be  shipped  into  the  north- 
west section  of  the  United  States  and  western  Canada.  Farm 
conditions  in  these  regions  call  for  cattle.  Those  communities  in 
which  there  are  a  goodly  number  of  animals  of  any  recognized 
breed  are  finding  more  ready  sales  at  high  prices  for  surplus 
stock  than   those  individual  breeders  more   or  less   scattered. 


142 


STARTING  A  DAIRY  HERD 


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a 


COMMUNITY  BREEDING  ASSOCIATIONS  143 

Many  communities  throughout  the  country  have  almost  uncon- 
sciously, and  certainly  without  concerted  action,  raised  so  many 
animals  of  the  same  breed  that  the  farmers  are  now  reaping  the 
benefit  very  positively.  So  keen  is  the  demand  now  for  improved 
livestock  and  the  advantage  to  the  buyer  of  being  able  to  select  a 
dozen  or  a  carload  in  one  community  that  in  a  large  number  of 
places  the  farmers  are  organizing  cooperatively  to  produce  more 
desirable  stock  in  greater  quantity. 

Community  Breeding  Associations. — Organized,  well  de- 
fined efforts  have  the  advantage  over  the  old  system  of  encour- 
aging each  man  to  act  independently,  while  the  community 
drifts,  in  the  following  respects : 

First.  A  larger  number  of  improved  animals  are  secured 
in  much  less  time.  The  years  required  to  raise,  develop  and  try 
out  a  cow  are  about  10  per  cent  of  the  farmer's  working  lifetime. 

Second.  Where  a  dozen  or  more  of  the  best  farmers  in  any 
neighborhood  lead  off  in  breeding  definitely  they  become  more 
keenly  interested  in  their  livestock,  take  better  care  of  the  ani- 
mals and,  through  the  fact  of  better  care,  derive  an  additional 
income. 

Third.  High  class  breeding  sires  may  be  purchased  for  less 
money  per  man  when  purchased  for  community  use.  The  econ- 
omy also  is  increased,  because  when  the  sires  have  worked  a 
period  of  two  years  in  any  community  they  may  be  systematically 
exchanged  Math  little  loss. 

Fourth.  The  surplus  grade  stock  not  only  rapidly  takes  the 
place  of  the  older  cows,  but  also  accumulates  in  such  number  as 
to  attract  outside  buyers.  Another  advantage  noticed  is  that 
the  fanners  who  begin  the  matter  of  improvement  in  one  line 
of  stock  seldom  are  satisfied  until  all  the  classes  of  livestock 
and  field  crops  too  have  been  studied  for  the  purpose  of 
improvement. 

The  great  advantages  of  a  comparatively  close  organization 
over  the  looser  methods  of  conducting  this  business  may  be  briefly 
summarized  as  follows:  A  well  organized  committee  attracts 
farmers'  institute  speakers  and  other  community  workers.  Thus 
the  individual  members  have  greater  opportunity  than  they 


144  STARTING  A  DAIRY  HERD 

would  likely  have  otherwise.  The  national  and  state  associa- 
tions representing  the  breed  kept  are  more  likely  to  send  litera- 
ture and  lecturers.  Another  feature  occasionally  found  highly 
valuable  is  in  the  control  of  the  character  of  the  deals  made  by 
some  of  the  members,  where  the  association  guarantees  stock  sold 
and  expels  members  selling  animals  of  known  sterility  or  with 
a  disease.  Such  has  been  found  excellent  advertising  and  highly 
profitable  to  the  farmers  of  the  community. 

Disadvantages  of  Community  Breeding. — Probably  the 
greatest  single  drawback  to  community  effort  is  the  possibility 
of  introducing  and  disseminating  diseases,  most  particularly, 
infectious  abortion.  Though  this  fact  should  be  borne  in  mind 
continually  in  purchasing  and  in  exchanging  sires,  those  com- 
munities which  have  for  five  or  more  years  carried  on  work  of 
this  sort  have  not  experienced  serious  difficulty.  The  incon- 
venience and  loss  of  time  entailed  in  taking  a  cow  some  distance 
for  service  are  sufficient  to  deter  some  from  joining  the  associa- 
tion though  often  owning  animals  of  the  same  breed.  In  some 
communities  exchanges  are  made  between  the  individual  and  the 
associated  breeders.  The  individual  ownership  of  bulls  has  its 
advantages.  There  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  two  systems  work- 
ing in  harmony  in  the  same  community.  The  object  especially 
is  to  increase  the  number  of  high  class  animals  as  quickly  as 
possible  without  great  expense  and  then  the  organized  selling  of 
surplus  stock. 

Selection  of  the  Individual  Cow. — It  must  be  ever  remem- 
bered by  the  breeders  of  livestock  that  the  laws  underlying  repro- 
duction are  at  best  but  poorly  understood  and  difficult  of  control. 
After  all  the  care  has  been  taken  which  would  seem  possible  or 
wise,  individual  members  of  the  herd  will,  for  reasons  apparent 
or  obscure,  fail  to  develop  into  sufficiently  profitable  cows.  The 
wise  dairymen  will  watch  for  these  variations,  both  that  he  may 
eliminate  the  inferior,  and  that  he  may  increase  his  herd  from 
the  most  valuable  animals. 

Variation  is  opportunity  for  progress,  but  the  inferior  indi- 
vidual must  not  be  used  as  a  propagator  of  others  or  the  opportun- 
ity will  be  lost.  While  the  causes  of  variation  are  obscure,  the 
fact  of  variation  is  evident. 


THREE  DAY  RECORDS  145 

Daily  Records. — Farmers  have  for  years  been  advised  to 
keep  daily  records  of  the  quantity  of  milk  produced  by  their  cows 
and  to  test  sufficiently  often  to  know  approximately  how  much 
fat  is  being  yielded  by  each  cow.  The  system  entails  consider- 
able attention  and  some  labor,  but  where  given  a  fair  test  is  found 
to  be  a  paying  investment.  The  form  of  the  record  sheet  used 
for  such  is  similar  to  the  sample  shown.  This  record  is  designed 
to  accommodate  twenty  cows  for  a  week  but  may  be  extended  to 
include  the  production  of  a  month  if  desired.  The  form  here 
shown  is  that  adopted  by  the  Dairy  and  the  Extension  Divisions 
in  the  University  of  Minnesota.  The  complaint  is  often  made 
that  to  weigh  the  milk  twice  a  day  consumes  so  much  time  that 
more  is  lost  than  gained  in  the  process.  This  criticism,  how- 
ever, is  made  by  those  who  have  never  tried  it.  The  advantage 
of  sytematically  weighing  every  milking  over  a  period  of  three 
days  a  month  is  that  in  addition  to  determining  the  production 
of  the  cow  the  added  value  of  having  what  may  be  termed  a  ther- 
mometer of  the  business  is  at  hand.  Many  items,  such  as 
scarcity  of  water  in  the  pasture,  short,  dry  grass,  presence  of 
flies,  bad  hay,  cold  rains,  or  poor  milkers,  have  a  decided  influence 
upon  the  profitableness  of  the  dairy  enterprise,  yet  may  not  be 
noticed  for  a  week  or  more  unless  there  be  at  hand  a  record  of 
production.  Some  cow  keepers  have  continued  the  daily  records 
after  becoming  convinced  that  all  the  cows  in  the  herd  are  profit- 
able, purely  for  the  effect  of  rivalry  created  among  the  milkers. 

A  sheet  summarizing  by  months  the  work  done  by  the  cows 
for  the  year  will  be  found  highly  advantageous.  Sample  of  the 
sheet  used  in  Minnesota  for  this  purpose  is  shown  on  page  146. 

Three  Day  Records. — At  times  the  labor  involved  in  daily 
weighing  seems  so  great  that  the  farmer  decides  not  to  commence 
testing.  To  such  the  system  of  weighing  the  milk  on  the  middle 
three  days  of  each  month  is  recommended.  The  yield  for  the 
month  is  calculated  by  multiplying  by  ten  the  yield  for  the  three 
test  days.  This  system  requires  scarcely  10  per  cent  of  the  labor 
involved  by  the  daily  weighing  system  and  its  accuracy  is  found 
to  be  about  96  per  cent.  This  is  more  accurate  than  usual  records 
kept  of  other  farm  operations.  Where  the  fat  test  is  made 
10 


146 


STARTING  A  DAIRY  HERD 


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from  a  sample  composited  from  the  six  milkings  there  is  no 
reason  why  this  system  should  not  be  fully  as  accurate  as  those 
now  in  vogue  with  most  of  the  pure  bred  cattle  associations  in  the 
making  of  semi-official  yearly  records,  where  the  herd  is  visited 
only  two  days  each  month  by  the  official  representative. 

The  three-day  system  of  record  keeping  is  best  carried  out  by 
ruling  a  cheap  day  book.     The  books  recommended  are  those 
about  five  inches  wide  by  a  foot  long,  and  cost  10  cents.     The 
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advantages  of  this  volume  are  that  it  is  too  large  to  be  easily  lost, 
yet  sufficiently  small  to  be  handled,  and  when  ruled  as  indicated, 
one  writing  of  the  cows'  names  will  suffice  for  a  year.  The  book 
is  sufficiently  large  to  contain  the  records  of  thirty  cows  for  seven 
years  if  desired.  It  is  recommended,  however,  that  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  book  each  cow  be  given  a  page  upon  which  are  recorded 
all  important  events  affecting  her  during  the  year,  such  as  date  of 
service ;  date  due  to  calve  and  trouble,  if  any.    One  volume  per 


148  STARTING  A  DAIRY  HERD 

year  kept  in  a  convenient  place  in  the  stable  will  be  found  highly 
valuable  and  worth  many  times  its  cost. 

Permanent  Records. — It  is  unwise  to  keep  the  permanent 
records  on  scraps  of  paper  or  in  pocket-sized  books. 

A  book  of  200  pages,  each  page  about  five  by  twelve  inches, 
can  be  purchased  for  ten  cents.  Each  page  will  hold  the  record 
of  thirty  cows  for  a  month.  The  names  or  numbers  of  the  cows 
should  be  written  down  the  left  margin  of  the  left-hand  page, 
then  ruled  up  as  shown  below. 

The  names  need  not  be  written  on  the  next  page  but  it 
should  be  ruled  so  that  the  outer  third  of  the  leaf  may  be  cut 
off,  so  that  when  turned  it  will  just  fit  the  names  of  the  cows. 
Then  on  this  narrow  page  the  next  month  may  be  ruled,  and  so  on. 
In  this  way  one  writing  of  the  names  will  answer  for  a  whole 
year  or  longer. 

Herd  Record  for  January,  1916 

Lbs.   milk  Estimate  Test  from  Lbs.  fat 

given  in  of  milk  composite                  per 

Name  and  No.  of  Cow        three  days  per  month  sample  month 

1.  Bettie     60                 600  3.5  21.00 

2.  Carlton    48                 480  3.7  17.76 

3.  Clara    90                 900  3.4  30.60 

4.  Violet   21                 210  4.6                   9.66 

5.  Fay     etc.                  ...  ...  .... 


Dairy  Testing  Associations. — In  1905  the  first  cooperative 
association  in  the  United  States  of  America  for  the  testing  of 
cows  was  organized  in  Michigan.  The  idea  and  the  individual 
organizing  the  first  in  the  United  States  came  from  Denmark. 
The  plan  is  that  twenty-five  farmers  join  their  interests  in  the 
matter  of  testing  and  calculating  dairy  rations.  In  sections 
of  the  country  where  herds  are  comparatively  large  one  dollar 
per  cow  per  year  furnishes  money  enough  to  run  the  association. 
In  the  middle  west  dairy  herds  are  smaller  on  the  average, 
and  $1.25  to  $1.50  per  cow  per  year  is  necessary,  since  only 
those  cows  belonging  to  approximately  twenty-five  farmers  can 
be  tested.  The  system  is  to  employ  a  competent  young  man, 
usually  a  graduate  of  a  school  of  agriculture,  or  a  short  course, 


SOME  RESULTS  OF  COW  TESTING  149 

to  go  from  farm  to  farm  to  weigh  and  test  the  milk ;  weigh  old 
rations  fed  and  compute  new.  He  remains  but  one  day  in  a  place, 
making  the  circuit  once  each  month.  Whenever  a  good  tester 
is  obtained,  experience  shows  the  investment  to  be  a  highly 
profitable  one  on  the  farmers'  part.  Aside  from  getting  the 
work  done  more  cheaply  than  the  farmer  himself  could  usually 
do  it  there  is  the  added  advantage  that  it  is  done,  which  is  so 
likely  not  to  be  the  case  for  more  than  a  few  months,  if  the  work 
is  left  entirely  to  the  owner  who  has  so  many  other  matters 
demanding  mental  and  physical  attention. 

The  three  requisites  for  improvement  in  livestock  are  breed- 
ing, feeding  and  selection.  The  dairy  herd  is  no  exception.  A 
constant  culling  out  process  is  essential  to  improvement. 

Some  Results  of  Cow  Testing. — The  nature  and  the  amount 
of  improvement  which  cooperative  testing  associations  may  be 
the  means  of  effecting  are  shown  in  an  average  of  ten  herds  in 
one  Iowa  association  during  four  years,  as  follows : 


Avg.  animal  milk  Avg.  animal  butter    Avg.  animal  Ave.  animal 

yield  per  cow  fat  per  cow  feed  cost  per  profit  per 

Year                                               Lbs.  Lbs.  cow  cow. 

191 1  6483  246  $26.40  $32.42 

1912  7649  277  52.31  39.20 

1913  8738  285  43.67  52.95 

1914  8648  312'  48.12  66.02 


One  single  herd  increased          Lbs.  Lbs.  _, 

1912  5665  207.7  $43.77  $22.12' 

1913  7060  251.9  33.28  53.96 

1914  9679  339.8  46.12  72.22' 

1915  10184  369.6  52.28  74.38 


Similar  improvements  have  been  brought  about  in  a  great 
many  herds  and  communities. 

The  growth  and  status  of  the  work  are  well  shown  by  the  fol- 
lowing table  compiled  by  the  Dairy  Division,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington.  D.  C. 


150 


STARTING  A  DAIRY  HERD 


Number   of   Cooperative   Coto-Testing   Associations    in    the    United   States, 
In  Operation  on  July  \st.  Each  Year 

Number  of  Associations  in  operation 


States                            1906    1907     1908    1909    1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

19H 

1915 

Michigan   1 

l        2 

5         4 

3 

4 

4 

3 

3 

Maine 

3 

4         3 

G 

g 

4 

5 

8 

New  York 

1 

1         3 

9 

18 

21 

29 

35 

Vermont 

I         8 

10 

11 

17 

28 

33 

Iowa 

I          ;"> 

4 

8 

8 

13 

California    

1          3 

2 

4 

4 

5 

Wisconsin    

9 

10 

8 

11 

24 

37 

Nebraska  

I          0 

0 

3 

2 

3 

Colorado    

1 

2 

1 

1 

0 

Pennsylvania    

1 

2 

2 

7 

14 

Ohio 

1 

0 

1 

4 

5 

Maryland    

3 

3 

2 

4 

Illinois 

3 

1 

o 
0 

7 
0 

3 

Washington     

1 

Minnesota 

7 

10 

9 

11 

New  Hampshire 

1 

1 

4 

8 

Oregon 

1 

1 

7 

11 

Utah 

0 

0 

1 

1 

Massachusetts    

2' 

2 

3 

0 

Virginia     

2 

■1 

0 

0 

Kansas     

1 

1 

Indiana    

2 

3 

Kentucky     

1 

0 

Missouri    

1 

New  Jersey 

3 

West  \  irginia    

1 

Connecticut 

3 

North   Carolina 

0 

Louisiana    

0 

South  Dakota 

1 

Nevada     

1 

Total    1 

[        i 
QL 

1        2 
EST1 

3        40 
ONS 

04 

02 

100 

103 

211 

1.  Give  suggestions  regardi 

ng  the  four 

dation  stock  for  a 

dairy 

herd. 

2.  In  your  section  what  bl 

ood  predon 

tinates  in  the 

dairy  herds? 

3.  What  are  the  points  of  a 

good  dairj 

-  bull  ? 

4.  Give  important  points  o 

f  a  good  pe 

digree. 

5.  What  is  meant  by  comi 

nunity  bre 

sding  ? 

6.  Give  advantages  and  di 

sadvantage 

s  of   a  b 

reedi 

tig  associat 

ion. 

7.  What  dairy  records  shou 

d  be  kept  b 

y  all  dai 

ryme 

n? 

8.  Of  what  use  are  these? 

9.  Compare  the  three-day 

record  witli 

the  daily  record. 

10.  What  is  a  dairy  testing 

associatio 

i  ?     Expl 

ain  its  working 

11.  What  are  some  of  the  r 

esults 

Of   8 

uch  a 

SSO 

ciatic 

MS 

1 

PART  III 

CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  DAIRY  COWS 


/TV*** 


CHAPTER  XIX 


DAIRY  HERD  MANAGEMENT 


Motherhood  and  mother-love  are  the  very  foundation  of 
the  dairy  industry.  When  a  man  comes  to  look  upon  a  cow  as 
a  mother,  a  calf  as  a  baby  and  young  stock  as  growing  children, 
he  is  in  a  very  fair  way  to  learn  how  to  handle  them. 

The  great  force  which  impels  or  stimulates  milk  production 
is  the  fact  of  motherhood,  or,  more  exactly  speaking,  probably 
an  enzyme  formed  in  connection  with  motherhood.  If  this 
stimulating  force  be  strong  the  cow  will  convert  the  nutriment 
contained  in  her  feed  into  milk  more  rapidly,  and  keep  at  it  for 
a  longer  time  than  she  could  if  this  stimulating  force  were  weak. 

We  do  not  yet  know  what  organ  of  the  body  secretes  this 
stimulating  fluid  nor  how  to  test  for  it  in  advance.  We  can 
only  wait  and  see  what  the  cow  does  under  good  care  and  feeding 
and  then  judge  her  in  comparison  with  other  cows. 

The  largest  single  item  in  the  production  of  the  recent 
phenomenal  milk  records  of  all  breeds  is  without  doubt  the  better 
methods  of  handling  now  employed  (Fig.  56),  but  next  to  this 
seems  to  be  the  inherited  presence  in  some  families  and  in- 
dividuals of  an  unusually  strong  secreting  power. 

This  may  explain,  in  a  way,  why  some  cows  of  good  con- 
stitution and  general  type  are,  after  all,  very  commonplace 
producers,  and  also  why  a  cow  of  non-famous  family  occasionally 
springs  into  prominence  by  making  an  unusual  record.  The 
law  of  variation  in  breeding  may  have  passed  on  to  her  this 
mark,  just  as  Jerseys  of  solid-colored  parents  are  born  with  spots 
or  Guernseys  of  orange  and  white  parents  with  solid  color  or 
with  dark  "  smoky  "  hairs  about  the  muzzle,  neck,  or  rear. 

Without  in  any  way  minimizing  the  value  of  breed,  or  type 
of  the  cows  employed  in  the  dairy,  or  the  great  importance  of 
the  ration  consumed  by  the  cows,  it  should  be  remembered  that 
in  the  detailed  management  of  the  herd  lies  a  very  large  part  of 
the  profits  or  disappointments  to  be  derived.     Excellent  cows 

153 


154 


DAIRY  HERD  MANAGEMENT 


can  be  liberally  fed,  yet  so  bandied  as  to  produce  little  or  no 
profit.  Tbe  common  cow  may  be  bandied  so  as  to  increase  ber 
production  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  per  cent  over  present  yields. 

Gestation  Period. — Tbe  length  of  time  between  service  and 
tbe  delivery  of  tbe  calf  is  usually  280  to  285  days,  or  a  little 
more  tban  9  montbs.  It  averages  a  little  longer  for  bull  tban 
for  beif er  calves.  In  order  tbat  tbe  cow  may  be  dried  off  at  tbe 
rigbt  time  it  is  necessary  tbat  record  be  kept  of  tbe  date  of 
service  of  every  cow. 

Time  to  Freshen. — Under  most  conditions  in  tbe  United 
States,  cows  sbould  be  bred  to  fresben  in  tbe  fall ;  tbe  calves 
to  be  dropped  between  October  1st  and  January  1st.     If  rea- 


Fig.  56. — Evidence  of  thrift  and  faith. 

sonably  well  boused  (Figs.  56  and  57),  cows  are  more  com- 
fortable in  winter  tban  in  summer.  Tbis  saves  feed.  Tbey 
likewise  travel  about  mucb  less,  wbicb  also  is  economy.  These 
facts  enable  tbe  cow  to  yield  milk  upon  less  feed  in  winter  than 
in  summer.  This  becomes  tbe  more  important  when  consider- 
able quantities  of  feed  are  purchased  or  where  forage  crops  are 
raised  on  high-priced  land. 

Nature  forces  the  cow  to  yield  milk  for  at  least  a  few  months 
after  calving  for  the  sustenance  of  its  own  calf.  Thus  tbe  cow 
when  comfortably  housed,  liberally  fed  and  kindly  treated  may 
be  expected  to  milk  during  the  entire  winter  months.  After  a 
period  of  four  to  seven  months  most  cows  begin  to  slack  off  in 


GESTATION  TABLE 


155 


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156 


DAIRY  HERD  MANAGEMENT 


production.  If  at  this  juncture  the  spring  arrives  with  its 
warm  weather  and  succulent  appetizing  grass,  the  milk  flow  is 
greatly  stimulated.  These  and  other  forces  cause  the  cow  to  in- 
crease in  milk  flow  in  spring  often  nearly  equal  to  the  maximum 
produced  shortly  following  freshening.  Later,  as  the  pasture 
grows  short  and  the  grass  tough  and  heat  and  flies  arrive,  the 
herd  will  decline  in  milk  flow  rapidly,  but  if  the  majority  of 
the  cows  freshened  in  the  autumn  previous,  they  will  already 
have  given  milk  nearly  a  year.  They  may  be  allowed  to  go 
dry  at  this  tima      They  need  a  vacation  anyway. 


Fig.  57. — A  good  general  farm  and  dairy  barn.     On  this  farm  the  author  was  raised. 

The  fall-fresh  cow  will  yield  about  fifteen  to  twenty  per 
cent  more  milk  in  the  year  than  the  spring-fresh  cows.  It  is  good 
practice  to  give  them  their  dry  period  while  the  farm  work  is  as 
pressing  as  is  usually  the  case  in  August  and  September. 

Milk  and  butter  fat  also  bring  higher  prices  in  winter  than 
in  summer.  Thus  the  cow  producing  the  bulk  of  her  flow  at  a 
time  when  it  is  worth  most  per  pound  becomes  exceedingly  more 
valuable  than  one  producing  most  liberally  when  prices  are  low. 

The  time  required  to  care  for  the  cows  may  usually  be  more 
readily  taken  in  winter  than  in  summer. 

Furthermore,  since  the  amount  and  value  of  manure  pro- 
duced depends  largely  upon  the  kind  and  amount  of  feed  con- 


GIVING  THE  COW  A  REST  157 

smned,  it  is  found  that  winter  dairying  serves  to  produce  more 
manure  at  a  time  of  the  year  when  it  can  be  saved. 

Winter  dairying  is  more  profitable  than  summer  dairying, 
then,  because  the  cow  will  give  more  milk,  will  give  the  bulk  of 
it  when  prices  are  highest  and  when  labor  is  cheapest,  and 
will  produce  more  manure  when  it  can  be  saved.  In  addition, 
the  calf  born  in  the  autumn  has  the  advantage  over  spring- 
born  calves,  as  noted  elsewhere. 

Changing  to  the  Fall  Basis. — Many  cows  are  still  permitted 
to  freshen  in  early  spring.  How  they  shall  be  put  upon  the 
fall  basis  varies  with  the  individual  animals  in  question,  but  it 
will  usually  be  found  more  economical  to  force  the  herd  to 
"  back  up,"  in  other  words,  the  cow  is  to  be  bred  as  soon  after 
calving  as  possible,  thus  causing  her  to  drop  the  next  calf  in 
less  than  a  year  from  the  time  she  previously  freshened.  By 
again  breeding  quickly  it  is  possible  to  force  the  calving  period 
back  into  the  early  winter  or  late  fall.  If,  however,  the  cow  in 
question  be  of  dairy  breeding,  and  intense  dairy  temperament, 
to  such  an  extent  that  oestrum  does  not  appear  for  three  to  six 
months  after  calving,  it  will  be  practically  necessary  to  breed  as 
soon  as  possible  and  to  let  the  calf  come  when  it  will.  Such  ani- 
mals, however,  will  be  found  the  most  persistent  milkers,  which 
will  enable  them  to  give  milk  a  year  and  a  half,  if  necessary.  It 
is  much  easier  to  control  the  time  of  calving  with  the  Holstein, 
Ayrshire,  or  Brown  Swiss,  than  with  the  Jersey  or  Guernsey. 

Giving  the  Cow  a  Rest. — The  yielding  of  two  to  four  pounds 
of  solid  feed  per  day  in  milk  is  very  exhausting  to  the  cow's 
system.  When  to  this  is  added  the  burden  of  the  growth  of 
the  calf,  a  very  considerable  amount  of  work  is  being  done.  In 
order,  therefore,  that  the  calf  may  be  amply  nourished,  and 
born  strong,  and  that  the  cow  herself  may  have  recuperated  in 
flesh  sufficient  to  enter  upon  a  new  lactation  period  strongly,  it 
is  highly  advisable  that  the  cow  be  given  a  rest  of  at  least  four, 
and  better,  six  weeks.  With  the  majority  of  cows  no  special 
effort  need  be  made  to  cause  them  to  go  dry,  but  with  the 
high  type  dairy  animal  with  the  intense  dairy  temperament,  there 
is  likelihood  that  the  secretion  of  milk  in  considerable  quan- 


158  DAIRY  HERD  MANAGEMENT 

tities  •wall  continue  until  the  new  calf  is  born.  This  is  detri- 
mental to  the  calf  and  the  cow  also.  Such  cows  need  carefully 
to  be  forced  to  go  dry. 

Drying  Off  the  Cow. — To  hasten  the  drying  process  a  large 
part,  or  all,  of  the  grain  may  be  withheld  from  the  ration,  thus 
forcing  her  to  subsist  largely,  or  wholly,  upon  roughage.  To 
this  inducement  may  be  added  that  of  leaving  a  little  milk  in 
the  udder  at  each  milking  for  a  time,  that  is,  not  milking  out 
clean  and  shortly  the  milking  of  the  cow  only  once  a  day.  In 
this  way  most  cows  may  safely  be  dried  off  preparatory  to  their 
rest  period.  To  do  this  intelligently  it  is  highly  important  that 
a  breeding  record  be  kept. 

The  dry  cow  should  be  looked  upon  as  a  prospective  milker, 
not  as  a  mere  boarder.  If  at  all  run  down  in  flesh,  grain  or 
other  sufficient  feed  should  be  given  to  enable  her  to  thoroughly 
recuperate  her  exhausted  condition.  If  pasture  is  ample  no  grain 
will  be  needed,  but  she  should  not  be  allowed  to  approach  the 
next  period  of  exhausting  labor  in  a  thin  or  indifferent  condition. 
In  fact  it  is  now  considered  good  practice  and  economy  to  feed 
some  grain,  if  need  be,  while  the  cow  is  dry  in  order  that  she 
may  become  well  recuperated,  in  fact  almost  fat.  Enough  more 
milk  with  a  higher  test  will  be  produced  during  the  next  lactation 
period  amply  to  repay  the  expense  of  conditioning  at  this  time. 

Preparing  Cows  for  Record  Making. — Since  milk  fever  is 
now  little  to  be  feared  it  has  become  the  custom  to  "  condition  " 
or  partially  fatten  cows  during  the  dry  period  in  order  to 
enable  them  to  produce  a  materially  greater  amount  of  milk  and 
fat  immediately  following  parturition.  It  has  for  years  been 
known  to  a  few,  and  more  recently  made  generally  public,  that 
not  only  will  a  cow  in  good  condition  produce  more  milk,  but 
that  she  will  also  yield  milk  of  a  somewhat  higher  fat  content 
while  milking  down  than  would  be  the  case  if  she  had  freshened 
in  a  lean  condition.  Thus,  some  Holstein  cows,  while  weigh- 
ing 1400  pounds,  yielded  milk  testing  close  to  five  per  cent 
fat  and  so  much  of  it  that  they  were  unable  to  eat  enough  feed 
to  maintain  such  a  large  flow  of  rich  milk.  Consequently  body 
tissue  was  drawn  upon.     The  cows  became  thinner  day  by  day. 


MANURE  AN  INDEX  IN  FEEDING  159 

As  the  body  fat  disappeared  the  percentage  amount  of  fat  in 
the  milk  lowered  until  as  the  cow,  after  a  period  of  a  few  months, 
reached  her  lean  working  level,  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  milk 
had  dropped  gradually  to  about  3.25  per  cent.  The  Holstein 
cow,  Missouri  Chief  Josephine,  averaged  a  test  of  4.04  per 
cent  fat  during  her  seven-day  record,  but  fell  to  only  2.81  per 
cent  as  an  average  for  the  year.  Feeding  during  record  making 
is  discussed  in  Chapter  XXIII.  To  prepare  the  cow  to  make 
the  largest  seven-day  or  thirty-day  or  yearly  records,  therefore,  it 
is  essential  that  she  be  given  a  rest  period  sufficient  for  thorough 
recuperation,  even  to  become  moderately  well  covered  with  fat. 

A  caution  here  is  due.  If  the  high-milking  cow  is  fed  grain 
up  too  close  to  her  calving  time  there  is  danger  of  inflammation 
of  the  udder.  This  is  particularly  the  case  if  corn  forms  a 
large  part  of  the  grain  ration.  All  grain  should  be  withheld 
several  days  prior  to  calving,  and  succulent  roughage,  as  com 
silage  or  roots,  be  fed  in  moderation.  This  is  done  in  order  that 
her  system  shall  not  contain  too  much  feed  material  and  that  her 
bowels  shall  be  loose  at  the  time  of  the  birth  of  the  calf. 

Manure  an  Index  in  Feeding. — Any  careful  herdsman  of 
cows,  horses,  or  other  stock,  will  notice  the  condition  and  odor 
of  the  manure.  If  too  hard  the  animals  need  some  loosening 
feed,  if  too  loose,  some  dry  feed  will  usually  help.  The  odor 
should  also  be  noted.  If  it  has  a  strong,  rotten  odor,  evidence 
is  ample  that  the  animal  is  out  of  condition,  most  likely  from 
over-feeding,  and  is  not  digesting  her  feed.  Such  putrid  odor 
indicates  that  the  whole  system  of  the  cow  is  being  poisoned.  In 
such  a  case  a  good  dose  of  physic  to  clean  out  the  fermenting 
matter  should  first  be  given  and  followed  by  a  lessened  amount 
of  feed.  Undigested  kernels  of  grain  usually  call  for  finer 
grinding  of  the  grain  feed. 

Milking  Before  Calving. — Occasionally  it  is  necessary  to 
milk  the  cow  partially  before  the  calf  is  delivered.  This  should 
not  be  done,  however,  unless  the  udder  becomes  severely  distended 
and  painful,  and  then  in  quantity  only  sufficient  to  relieve  the 
stress.     Most  cows  do  not  require  this  precaution.     With  high- 


160  DAIRY  HERD  MANAGEMENT 

class  cows  one  danger  in  milking  before  the  calf  is  bom  is  the 
likelihood  of  bringing  on  milk  fever. 

Care  at  Calving. — The  calving  period  is  a  critical  one  in 
the  cow's  life.  Our  domesticated  animals  are  very  liable  indeed 
to  produce  young  so  large  as  to  require  assistance  in  delivery 
and  other  calves  of  normal  size  occasionally  become  misplaced 
and  demand  attention  to  prevent  suffocation.  Cows  in  pasture 
still  follow  their  wild  instincts  to  hide  in  a  remote  corner,  to 
calve  in  secrecy,  and  even  to  hide  the  young  in  the  tall  grass  or 
brush.  Cows  freshening  in  the  early  winter  are,  therefore,  much 
more  easily  cared  for  at  this  time.  When  nearly  due  to  freshen 
the  cow  should  be  put  in  a  box  stall  sufficiently  large  to  allow 
free  movement  and  turning  without  danger.  Abundance  of 
water  and  a  little  coarse  succulent  feed  should  be  supplied 
(Fig.  58).  Attention  should  be  given  that  her  bowels  are 
moderately  loose.  The  herdsman  should  be  near  at  hand  at 
the  moment  of  calving  to  give  assistance  if  needed.  A  few 
minutes  spent  at  the  critical  moment  may  save  the  life  of  a 
valuable  calf  and  occasionally  the  cow's  as  well. 

Care  After  Calving. —  The  strain  upon  the  cow's  system  due 
to  calving  brings  on  some  fever  and  nervousness.  She  should 
be  given  free  access  to  water  which  is  not  too  cold.  Xo  feed 
need  be  given  for  some  hours.  If  both  cow  and  calf  are  normal 
they  may  be  left  alone,  she  to  clean  and  to  lick  the  calf  off,  and 
he  to  leam  the  use  of  his  legs.  The  cow  is  usually  permitted  to 
suckle  the  calf  once,  though  this  is  not  necessary.  Cows  have 
strong  attachment  for  their  calves  only  after  having  lived  with 
them  for  a  few  days.  Consequently,  the  removal  of  the  calf  at 
once,  or  when  but  a  few  hours  old,  causes  no  particular  bereave- 
ment on  the  part  of  the  cow.  The  calf  is  wholly  forgotten  in  a 
day.  The  calf  should  be  removed  from  the  sight  and  hearing  of 
the  dam  while  she  is  absent  from  the  stall.  Her  return  is  the 
psychological  moment  for  the  dairyman.  The  man  who  later 
is  to  milk  her  should  be  on  hand  to  caress,  to  speak  kindly  and 
to  feed  a  moderate  mess  of  steamed  oats  or  bran  mash.  While 
she  is  consuming  this  delicacy  the  herdsman  should  groom  her 


MILK  FEVER 


161 


with  a  brush,  handle  the  udder  and  teats,  and  gently  draw  a 
small  quantity  of  milk.  It  is  not  at  all  infrequent  for  the  cow 
to  transfer  her  affections  from  the  calf  absent  to  the  man  present, 
to  adopt  him  as  it  were,  and  to  him  yield  milk  as  freely  and  as 
gladly  as  she  otherwise  would  have  done  to  her  own  young.  The 
more  intelligent  and  sensitive  the  cow  and  the  man,  the  more 
keenly  true  these  facts. 

Milk  Fever. — The  disease  known  as  milk  fever,  or  parturient 
apoplexy,  which  was  the  dread  of  high-class  dairymen  for  a 
good  many  years,  is  no  longer  much  to  be  feared,  for  whatever 
may  or  may  not  be  the  real  cause  of  the  condition,  its  cure  or 


Fio.   58. — A  supply  of  good  water  constantly  within 
production.     (Courtesy  Jami 


each  of  the  cow  is  an  aid  in  milk 
Mfg.  Co.) 


prevention  is  now  not  difficult  and  reasonably  certain  by  means 
of  the  so-called  air  treatment. 

To  prevent  this  malady  so  far  as  possible  the  heavy  milking 
cow  should  not  be  fully  milked  out  at  first  nor  for  a  couple  of 
days.  The  precipitation  of  the  condition  is  closely  associated 
with  the  sudden  and  complete  removal  of  the  contents  of  the 
udder.  By  removing  the  first  milk  gradually  many  mishaps 
may  be  averted.  Occasionally,  however,  precautions  fail  to 
prevent  and  the  cow  comes  down  with  milk  fever.  For  treat- 
ment, see  page  202. 
11 


162  DAIRY  HERD  MANAGEMENT 

Two  or  More  Milkiags  Per  Day. — Ordinarily  the  cow 
milked  twice  per  day,  dividing  the  twenty-four  hours  into  two 
approximately  equal  periods,  will  give  as  much  as  she  would 
if  milked  three  or  more  times  per  day.  The  fact  remains, 
however,  that  when  the  udder  becomes  filled  with  milk  there 
seems  to  be  a  cessation  of  the  activity  of  the  milk  secreting 
glands.  Some  cows  are  able  to  digest  and  to  convert  into  milk  a 
quantity  of  feed  considerably  greater  than  can  be  stored  in  the 
udder  when  removed  but  twice  daily.  Such  cows  should  be 
milked  three  times  and  most  abundant  milkers  four  times  per 
day,  dividing  the  twenty-four  hours  into  eight  or  six  hour 
periods,  as  the  case  may  be.  This  naturally  involves  more 
labor,  but  if  a  large  yield  is  sought,  such  care  will  be  found 
necessary.  The  phenomenal  records  recently  made  by  the  lead- 
ing cows  of  all  the  various  breeds  were  produced  upon  the  system 
of  three  or  four  milkings  per  day. 

Period  of  Greatest  Yield. — As  a  rule  cows  give  the  most 
milk  per  day  between  the  eighteenth  and  the  twenty-eighth  day 
after  calving.  The  most  fat  is  usually  produced  during  the 
second  week  and  the  most  milk  during  the  third  week.  This 
then  would  be  the  time  for  expecting  advanced  registry  records 
to  be  made  if  any  were  possible. 

Breeding. — Following  a  normal  calving,  a  cow  should  not 
be  bred  for  about  three  months,  unless  it  is  desired  to  turn  the 
time  of  calving  to  an  earlier  date ;  but  following  an  abortion  the 
cow  should  be  bred  as  early  as  conditions  will  permit.  That  i3 
as  soon  as  all  discharges  have  ceased  and  all  organs  are  clean  and 
healthy  again.  The  disease  which  causes  abortion  also  induces 
sterility,  consequently,  considerable  time  may  elapse  before  con- 
ception will  take  place.  It  is  wise,  therefore,  to  start  early  in 
order  that  the  cow  may  not  lose  any  more  time  than  necessary. 

The  first  year's  record  of  a  young  cow,  according  to  Eckles, 
may  be  used  as  a  guide  as  to  her  ability  to  perform  in  later  life, 
providing,  of  course,  she  is  not  too  young  when  beginning  work 
and  has  been  adequately  fed  and  housed.  A  dairy  breed  heifer 
freshening  at  twenty-four  to  twenty-eight  months  of  age  should 
produce   during  the  coming  year  about  70  per  cent  of  the 


EFFECT  OF  FEED  ON  TEST  OF  MILK        163 

quantity  which  would  be  expected  of  her  in  her  mature  form 
and  during  the  second  lactation  year  80  per  cent  and  the  third 
90  per  cent. 

One  should  not  draw  too  hasty  conclusions  regarding  a 
young  cow  that  is  not  doing  well  yet  which  is  of  such  breeding 
that  better  work  might  be  expected. 

The  famous  Holstein  cow,  Missouri  Chief  Josephine, 
calved  the  first  time  when  about  two  and  one-half  years  old 
and  was  fairly  well  fed  after  she  calved  but  had  not  been  put 
into  condition  before  freshening.  Her  milk  for  the  first  three 
months  tested  only  1.5  per  cent  fat.  Her  first  year's  work  was 
very  ordinary,  but  upon  maturity  and  with  better  feeding  she 
broke  the  world's  record  for  six  months,  producing  17,008 
pounds  of  milk.  Her  record  for  the  year  was  26,861  pounds 
of  milk.  On  her  best  day  she  yielded  110.2  pounds  of  milk, 
about  fifty  quarts,  testing  2.8  per  cent  fat. 

Effect  of  Feed  on  Test  of  Milk. — When  cows  have  for  a 
considerable  time  been  very  inadequately  fed  they  not  only 
will  produce  a  smaller  quantity  of  milk  and  fat,  but  the  milk 
will  have  in  it  a  slightly  lower  percentage  amount  of  fat.  The 
same  animals  later  liberally  fed  upon  the  ordinary  feedstuffs 
are  known  to  increase  very  materially  not  only  in  total  quantity 
of  milk  and  fat  yielded,  but  also  in  percentage  of  fat  as  well." 
Many  reasonable  and  other  methods  have  been  tried  for  the 
production  of  milk  of  higher  fat  content.  Such  artificial  methods 
as  the  feeding  of  fat,  however,  produce  a  higher  percentage  only 
by  throwing  the  cow  out  of  condition  and  making  her  feverish. 
The  period  of  high  percentage  fat  is  then  of  short  duration  and 
is  usually  followed  by  a  period  of  depression. 

The  pnly  practicable  way  of  securing  more  fat  for  market 
is  by  feeding  the  cow  liberally,  yet  within  reason,  on  a  balanced 
ration  made  up  of  ordinary  feedstuffs  and  otherwise  giving  her 
such  care  that  she  will  be  able  to  yield  a  larger  quantity  of  milk. 
The  struggle  to  secure  a  higher  fat  content  in  milk  is  imprac- 
tical with  any  cow  except  in  so  far  as  it  can  be  influenced  by 
the  condition  of  body  fatness  accumulated  during  her  period  of 
rest;  or  as  a  long  time  plan,  the  breeding  from  stock  which 


164  DAIRY  HERD  MANAGEMENT 

yields  milk  of  a  fat  content  higher  than  the  average  for  the  breed. 

The  effect  of  drought  on  the  richness  of  milk  is  to  lessen  it 
perceptibly,  especially  if  the  drought  occurs  early  in  the  season, 
before  the  grass  lias  become  fully  grown  or  matured.  In  1006 
an  early  drought  in  northern  Missouri  caused  the  fat  test  of  milk 
to  decline  as  much  as  five-tenths  per  cent  or  from  3.7  to  3.2. 
The  solids  not  fat  in  the  milk  were  also  so  low  that  the  lactometer 
reading  of  such  milk  was  as  low  as  2s  or  29  with  grade  Short- 
horn cows,  when  it  should  and  normally  would  have  been  31.5. 
The  yield  of  cheese  as  well  as  of  butter  was  disappointingly  low 
during  that  season. 

Effect  of  Turning  on  Pasture. — One  of  the  traditions  of  the 
dairymen  is  that  the  quality  of  milk  depreciates  when  cows  are 
turned  from  the  dry  feed  of  the  stable  on  to  the  succulent  spring 
pasture.  They  wrere  often  encouraged  in  this  belief  by  local 
creamery  men  during  the  days  of  the  whole  milk  creamery.  That 
there  is  no  uniform  decrease  in  the  fat  content  of  milk  under 
such  conditions  is  proved  by  the  thousands  of  tests  made  of  milk 
at  the  ^Minnesota  Station.  At  this  institution  a  sample  of  every 
milking  is  tested  by  itself,  not  composited,  as  in  so  many  places. 
For  more  than  twenty  years,  with  a  herd  varying  from  twenty 
to  sixty  cows,  tests  have  been  made  twice  a  day.  The  breeds 
included  in  this  and  other  experiments  included  the  Jersey, 
Guernsey,  Holstein,  Ayrshire,  Shorthorn  and  Brown  Swiss. 
From  the  mass  of  evidence  at  hand  it  may  be  stated  that  the 
usual  opinion  is  incorrect  where  well-fed  cows  are  concerned 
that,  whereas  a  few  decrease  in  fat  content,  the  average  test  of 
the  milk  of  the  well-fed  herd  is  greater  following  the  turning  on 
to  pasture  than  it  was  just  prior  to  it.  It  is  highly  probable 
that  the  impression  gained  a  place  during  the  pioneer  days  when 
cows  "  spring  poor  "  were  often  turned  out  to  pasture  long  be- 
fore there  was  enough  feed  even  to  sustain  weight,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  producing  milk. 

Large  vs.  Small  Pasture. — A  small  pasture  wath  an  abund- 
ance of  grass  is  economical,  in  that  the  cows  do  not  waste  so 
much  of  their  energy  in  travelling  about.  On  the  other  hand, 
a  study  of  the  movements  of  the  herd  in  pasture  will  reveal  the 


SHORT  PASTURE  165 

fact  that  they  choose  location  according  to  the  condition  of  the 
weather,  seeking  the  sheltered  places  if  chilly,  while  resting  on 
the  hill-top  in  hot  weather.  A  large  pasture  offers  greater  oppor- 
tunity for  the  cows  to  make  themselves  thoroughly  comfortable. 
If,  however,  the  pasture  is  on  a  dead  flat  prairie  country  it  is 
probable  that  the  smaller  pasture  is  preferable,  while  on  rolling 
or  broken  land,  the  larger  is  better. 

Acres  Required  Per  Cow. — This  naturally  varies  greatly 
with  the  fertility  of  the  field  and  the  rainfall,  also  in  many 
sections  with  the  amount  of  timber  or  brush  land  included  in 
the  pasture.  Dense  forest  yields  little  pasturage.  Likewise  in 
old  clearings,  largely  grown  up  to  brush,  grass  is  to  be  found 
only  in  the  open  spaces,  while  within  the  clumps  of  bushes  little 
or  nothing  can  be  secured  by  cows.  The  open  field,  well  seeded 
to  blue  grass  and  white  clover,  will,  on  the  average,  yield  grass 
in  such  quantity  that  two  to  three  acres  will  feed  one  mature 
cow  during  the  pasture  season.  The  rotation  pasture,  however, 
should  produce  more  feed  and  thereby  require  only  about  one 
and  a  half  acres  per  cow  per  season.  In  many  sections  it  is 
calculated  that  the  average  young  stock  consumes  one-half  and 
the  dry  cow  two-thirds  as  much  feed  as  the  cow  in  milk.  This 
distinction  is  made  for  pasture  rental  purposes. 

Short  Pasture. — It  is  highly  probable  that  the  great  dropping 
off  in  milk  flow  in  July  and  August  is  due  more  to  the  short,  dry 
pasture  than  to  the  presence  of  flies.  The  writer  once  tested 
this  matter  by  means  of  two  groups  of  cows  similarly  fed,  one- 
half  turned  to  pasture  and  the  other  half  kept  in  the  yard.  Both 
were  annoyed  with  flies  about  equally  and  both  had  all  the  feed 
they  would  readily  consume,  yet  those  animals  that  went  to 
pasture  went  dry  at  the  rate  of  15  per  cent  per  month,  while 
those  kept  in  yard  decreased  at  the  rate  of  only  8  per  cent 
per  month.  If  to  the  quiet  of  the  yard  had  been  added  the  com- 
fort of  a  half-darkened  stable  during  the  day  the  difference 
between  the  two  groups  would  unquestionably  have  been  yet 
more  marked. 

If  we  will  but  remember  that  the  average  cow,  giving  the 
average  amount  of  milk,  requires  the  feed  nutrients  contained 


166  DAIRY  HERD  MANAGEMENT 

in  about  100  pounds  of  grass  per  day,  and  will  then  calculate 
the  number  of  steps  and  bites  the  cow  must  take  on  a  short 
pasture  to  secure  100  pounds,  it  will  readily  be  believed  that  she 
does  not  continue  to  labor  until  the  full  amount  has  been 
obtained,  but  rather  that  when  the  hunger  is  fairly  satisfied  she 
ceases  her  search  and  lies  down  to  rest.  She  has  probably 
already  walked  a  greater  distance  than  is  really  good  for  her 
and  yet  has  secured  an  insufficient  quantity  of  feed.  Her  main- 
tenance then  would  be  above  normal  and  the  supply  of  feed 
below  normal,  thus  reducing  the  quantity  of  feed  consumed 
beyond  maintenance,  to  an  exceedingly  small  amount. 

Protection  Against  Flies. — The  amount  of  harm  done  the 
dairy  herd  by  annoyance  from  flies  is  not  at  all  a  settled  matter. 
Two  experiment  stations,  Connecticut  and  Missouri,  conducted 
tests  to  indicate  the  influence  of  the  fly  and,  entirely  inde- 
pendently of  each  other,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  damage 
done  by  the  fly  had  been  overestimated  and  that  the  slacking  off 
in  milk  yield  was  due  far  more  largely  to  a  scarcity  of  feed  and 
short  pasture.  On  the  other  hand,  we  find  experienced  and 
keenly  observing  dairymen  who  attribute  the  falling  off  in  milk 
during  fly  season  very  largely  indeed  to  the  labor  and  pain 
endured  by  the  cows  due  to  the  flies.  This  is  particularly  the 
case  in  some  of  our  newer  northern  sections  where  various 
"  deer,"  "  moose  "  and  "  night  "  flies  are  particularly  abundant. 

It  is  possible,  therefore,  that  the  difference  of  opinion  is  in 
part  due  to  the  difference  in  the  sort  of  fly  common  in  the  section 
considered. 

Supplementing  the  pasture  by  means  of  a  crop  (of  Canadian 
field  peas  and  oats)  to  be  cut  and  fed  green  when  pastures  are 
short  and  dry,  is  often  necessary  in  the  maintenance  of  milk 
flow.  If  this  is  contemplated,  about  one  acre  should  be  used  for 
every  twenty  cows  to  be  fed.  Canada  field  peas  and  oats  sown 
as  early  as  the  ground  can  be  worked,  and  followed  by  a  similar 
quantity  sown  when  the  first  has  grown  to  a  height  of  two  or 
three  inches,  makes  a  good  soiling  crop  for  the  northern  states. 
A  more  reliable  crop  to  be  fed  later  in  the  season  will  be  found 
in  fodder  corn,  drilled  thickly,  at  the  rate  of  thirty-five  to  forty 


MILKING  167 

pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  and  put  in  as  early  as  the  season  will 
permit.  This  will  be  ready  to  feed  in  seventy-five  to  ninety 
days  after  planting.  If  possible,  the  field  of  corn  to  be  fed  out, 
should  be  located  close  beside  the  pasture  or  even  enclosed  within 
the  pasture.  This  nearness  is  for  the  sake  of  ease  and  economy 
of  labor  in  feeding.  A  few  minutes  with  a  hand  corn  knife 
will  suffice  to  cut  and  throw  over  the  fence  as  much  as  the 
animals  will  readily  consume.  If  the  supplementary  corn  field 
is  located  by  the  pasture  and  is  made  long  and  narrow  the 
expense  of  feeding  will  have  been  reduced  to  the  minimum  and 
it  will  be  found  to  be  a  wonderfully  well  paying  investment. 

Milking. — The  cow  is  a  creature  of  habit.  To  return  the 
maximum  of  milk  for  the  feed  consumed  she  should  be  milked 
at  regular  intervals,  and  preferably,  by  the  same  individual.*^ In 
some  institutional  or  other  large  herds  where  the  milking  force 
is  continually  changing  in  personnel,  thus  necessitating  frequent 
change  of  milkers,  it  is  found  preferable  to  shift  the  milkers 
continually  in  order  to  prevent  any  cow  from  becoming  attached 
to  any  one  milker.  Thus  the  operation  of  milking  becomes  an 
impersonal  matter.  It  is  more  likely,  too,  that  the  damage  done 
by  an  individual  poor  milker  will  be  partially  rectified  by  the 
following  good  milker. 

In  beginning  the  milking  act  care  should  always  be  taken 
to  start  the  process  slowly.  Sharp  pains  unquestionably  pierce 
the  cow's  udder  just  as  the  milk  starts.  The  first  few  streams 
should  be  taken  slowly  and  gently,  especially  in  cold  weather. 
Many  a  quarrel  between  cow  and  man  might  have  been  averted  if 
consideration  had  been  shown  at  this  point. 

Methods  of  Milking — A  few  years  ago  the  Danish  or  the 
Heglund  manipulation  method  of  milking  was  quite  widely  dis- 
cussed and  was  tested  by  the  Wisconsin  Station.  In  brief,  the 
result  showed  that  following  a  slow  or  weak-handed  milker  the 
Danish  system  of  manipulation  or  massage  would  materially 
increase  the  amount  of  milk  yielded,  but  when  it  followed  a 
strong,  active  milker,  little,  if  any,  benefit  was  derived. 

The  Heglund  system  was  devised  very  largely  to  interest 
people  in  general,  but  farm  and  village  girls  in  particular,  in 


168  DAIRY  HERD  MANAGEMENT 

taking  interest  and  pride  in  milking.  It  served  that  purpose 
well,  but  also  demonstrated  to  all  the  need  of  massage  of  the 
mammary  glands  if  greatest  activity  and  yield  were  to  be  ob- 
tained. Ample  stimulation  seems  to  be  furnished,  however, 
by  ordinary  rapid,  strong-handed  milking,  followed  by  a  mod- 
erate amount  of  drawing  down  of  the  teat  and  stripping  out  of 
the  udder.  When  once  the  milk  flow  has  been  well  started,  strong- 
handed,  rapid  milking  is  preferable,  as  such  will  obtain  more 
milk  at  each  milking  and  will  keep  the  cow  in  milk  for  a  longer 
period  of  months. 

Stripping  for  some  time  after  the  major  portion  of  the  milk 
has  been  drawn  is  in  part  a  habit  on  the  part  of  the  cow  and  the 
milker.  This  may  be  largely  avoided  if  the  milker  will  but 
draw  down  firmly  on  the  teat  with  one  hand  while  gently  but 
firmly  squeezing  and  rubbing  downward  on  the  udder  with  the 
other.  Stripping,  as  commonly  understood,  that  is,  the  slipping 
of  the  teat  between  the  thumb  and  finger  to  finish  getting  all 
the  milk  should  not  be  practiced.  The  milk  can  all  be  drawn 
with  less  pain  to  the  cow  by  finishing  with  the  full  hand  or  with 
thumb  and  two  fingers. 

The  first  and  last  milk  drawn  from  a  cow  differ  very  ma- 
terially in  fat  content,  The  first  is  thin,  almost  watery.  The 
fat  in  such  frequently  is  only  one  quarter  as  great  in  amount  as 
in  the  last  drawn  or  the  strippings.  The  amount  of  difference 
between  first  and  last  depends  largely  upon  how  much  milk 
the  cow  is  giving  at  that  particular  time.  If  fresh  in  milk  so 
that  the  udder  is  fully  distended,  in  fact  turgid,  the  first  milk 
drawn  may  test  as  low  as  one-half  of  one  per  cent  fat,  while  the 
stripping  test  is  as  high  as  9  per  cent  fat,  the  last  being  eighteen 
times  as  rich  as  the  first.  But  with  a  cow  giving  only  five  to 
ten  pounds  at  a  milking,  the  first  may  test  2  or  3  per  cent  and 
the  last  6  or  7  per  cent,  with  an  average  of  4  per  cent  for  the 
whole  mei  s.  This  emphasizes  the  necessity  of  milking  the  cow 
dry  and  mixing  the  milk  well  before  taking  a  sample  for  testing, 
also  the  fact  that  if  the  cow  is  not  milked  out  clean  each  time 
the  richest  part  of  the  milk  is  the  part  lost.    Incomplete  milking 


THE  MILKING  MACHINE  169 

also  is  a  very  common  cause  of  garget  as  well  as  causing  the  cow 
to  dry  up  ahead  of  time. 

The  Milking  Machine — From  the  many  reports  by  experi- 
ment stations,  and  otherwise,  regarding  the  efficiency  and  prac- 
ticability of  the  mechanical  milker  it  is  obvious  that  at  least  some 
of  the  machines,  as  now  developed,  and  at  present  represented 
by  a  dozen  or  more  companies,  will  milk  cows,  that  is,  draw 
from  the  udder  most  of  the  milk  contained  therein,  but  that  it 
will  not  strip  out  as  thoroughly  as  desired  nor  yet  massage  the 
mammary  glands  for  the  purpose  of  stimulating  blood  flow,  and 
much  less  excite  in  the  cow's  nervous  system  the  impulse  to 
milk  secretion.  The  fact  that  some  dairymen  are  continuing 
to  use  the  machine  and  are  well  pleased  with  it  after  an  experi- 
ence of  from  three  to  six  years  is  evidence  that  the  machine  itself 
is  already  in  a  reasonably  high  stage  of  perfection,  but  the  fact 
that  many  farmer  dairymen  who  introduce  the  machine  later 
lay  it  aside,  would  indicate  that  the  difficulty  of  finding  the  right 
man  to  operate  the  machine  is  great.  One  is  almost  tempted  to 
draw  the  conclusion  that  the  machine  has  reached  a  higher  stage 
of  perfection  than  have  the  operators. 

If  on  a  two-man  farm  forty  or  fifty  cows  may  be  kept  by  the 
assistance  of  the  mechanical  milker  the  advantages  of  the  larger 
number  of  cows  or  the  small  number  of  men  is  obvious.  In  the 
dairies  of  fifty  or  more  cows  where  transient  labor  must  be 
depended  upon,  it  seems  highly  probable  that  one  of  the  mechan- 
ical milkers  will  be  found  a  profitable  investment,  provided  the 
owner  operates  the  machine  himself. 

Some  machines  are  not  provided  with  adequate  regulators 
of  the  suction  force,  while  others  have  no  way  provided  for  the 
relief  of  the  teat  from  constant  or  near-constant  suction.  Cows 
do  not  object  to  the  feel  of  the  teat  cups  nor  to  the  click  of  the 
machine.  In  fact  many  now  on  the  market  are  easier  on  the 
cow  than  are  ordinary  hand  milkers  with  untrimmed  finger  nails. 

The  whole  matter  of  mechanical  milkers  now  resolves  itself 
into  three  questions,  the  cost  for  the  number  of  cows  to  be 
handled,  the  handling  so  as  to  keep  up  the  flow  of  milk  and  the 
sanitary  character  of  the  product  drawn.     If  a  man  has  feed 


170  DAIRY  HERD  MANAGEMENT 

and  barn  room  for  twenty  or  thirty  cows  and  can  save  hiring  a 
man  by  having  a  machine,  it  will  pay  to  put  one  in,  provided  he 
understands  machinery  reasonably  well  and  understands  cows 
fully  as  well  as  would  be  required  if  he  were  to  do  all  the  work 
by  hand  and  will  attend  to  the  work  in  person. 

Most  or  all  the  machines  are  now  made  so  that  all  parts  can 
be  cleaned.  It  is  another  question  whether  they  will  be  kept 
clean.  If  cared  for  properly  cleaner  milk  can  be  produced  by 
machine  than  by  hand,  but  in  practice  there  is  dauger  that  the 
milk  will  not  be  so  clean. 

The  success  or  the  failure  of  the  machine  now  depends 
almost  wholly  on  the  operator. 

The  bed  of  the  cow  naturally  should  be  comfortable  whether 
made  so  with  shavings  or  straw.  It  is  the  nature  of  cattle  to 
eat  their  feed  rapidly,  then  to  lie  down  to  ruminate  it.  If  a 
hard,  narrow,  or  otherwise  uncomfortable  bed  is  furnished  them, 
the  discomfort  will  induce  activity  and  needlessly  increase  the 
amount  of  feed  necessary  for  maintenance.  Making  the  cows 
completely  comfortable  saves  feed  (Fig.  59). 

Dehorning  the  cows  after  maturity  gives  them  less  pain  than 
they  would  inflict  upon  some  sister  cow  if  permitted  to  wear 
their  useless  side  arms.  Clippers  for  the  removal  of  horns  are 
not  to  be  advised,  since  they  crush  the  bone  and  thereby  leave  a 
large  number  of  little  slivers  which  make  healing  difficult  and 
very  slow.  A  fine  meat  saw  is  preferable  to  any  other  instru- 
ment yet  devised.  The  horn  should  be  sawed  so  close  to  the 
head  that  a  ring  of  hair  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  wide  will  still 
cling  to  the  horn.  Cut  thus  short  the  horn  will  not  grow,  neither 
will  it  hurt  the  animal  as  keenly  as  it  would  if  cut  a  half  inch 
longer,  in  which  case  the  stub  would  continue  growth  and  often 
produce  an  ugly  or  annoying  malf ormed  horn.  It  is  inadvisable 
to  dehorn  in  winter  because  of  the  cold,  and  it  is  dangerous, 
indeed,  to  dehorn  in  summer  when  flies  are  bad.  If,  in  the  case 
of  an  accident,  it  becomes  necessary  to  saw  off  an  animal's  horn 
during  fly  season  and  maggots  should  develop  in  the  wound,  they 
may  be  thoroughly  expelled  by  means  of  turpentina  The 
wound  should  then  be  covered  with  a  wad  of  cotton  saturated 


KICKING  COWS 


171 


with  tar,  to  form  a  temporary  scab,  and  to  repel  flies.  It,  of 
course,  is  preferable  to  apply  the  tarred  cotton  as  a  precaution 
rather  than  as  a  remedy. 

Cows  without  horns  live  together  so  much  more  peaceably, 
crowding  about  the  water  tank  like  so  many  sheep,  that  the  prac- 
tice of  permitting  the  horns  to  remain  on  the  working  dairy  herd 
should  be  considered  an  extravagance,  at  best  a  luxury. 

As  a  working  practice  it  is  preferable  to  prevent  the  horn 
from  growing  on  the  calf  by  means  of  caustic. 

Sucking  cows  are  liable  to  develop  if  calves  are  permitted 
to  suckle  each  other  after  drinking.     They  often  thus  learn  the 


Fig.  59. — Comfort  is  also  economy  in  the  dairy  cow  stable. 

taste  of  milk  from  some  member  of  the  herd  and  finally  discover 
that  they  themselves  may  be  the  source  of  that  satisfaction. 
Various  means  have  been  suggested,  but  the  one  which  most 
nearly  always  works  is  to  put  into  the  cow's  nose  an  ordinary 
bull  ring  and  into  this  ring  a  second  ring,  forming  thus  a  two- 
linked  chain.  This  so  interferes  with  the  process  of  sucking  as 
to  finally  discourage  it  altogether. 

It  is  often  a  hard  habit  to  break,  however,  and  should  be 
averted  by  so  handling  the  calves  that  they  do  not  learn  the  trick. 

Kicking  cows  are  usually  developed  from  rough  handling. 
The  more  intelligent  and  sensitive  the  animal  the  more  likely  it 
is  to  resent  unjust  treatment.     The  heifer  with  first  calf  is 


172  DAIRY  HERD  MANAGEMENT 

nervous  and  too  often  unaccustomed  to  being  handled.  Quiet 
self-control  on  the  part  of  the  milker  for  a  few  days  will  usually 
suffice  to  convince  the  young  mother  that  she  is  among  friends 
with  no  reason  to  fight. 

In  case  flics,  barb-wire  scratch,  or  other  cause  has  made  bad 
sores  upon  the  cow's  teats,  greatest  comfort  in  milking  is  found 
by  first  moistening  the  skin  with  warm  water  or  milk.  A  good 
fly-repelling  salve  should  be  used  after  milking  to  heal  the 
wounds.  In  case  it  is  necessary  to  tie  the  animal's  leg's  this 
should  he  done  by  tying  them  together  with  a  soft  rope,  put  on 
in  "  figure  eight,"  above  the  hocks.  This  will  prevent  her 
doing  damage  and  without  subjecting  her  to  the  strain  and  excite- 
ment which  would  follow  strapping  a  foot  back. 

It  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized  that  the  cow  is  a  docile 
creature,  fully  willing  to  be  friends  with  her  keeper,  and  will  not 
kick  without  cause. 

Hard  milkers  are  frequently  caused  by  neglect  of  the  teat 
in  permitting  it  to  become  too  dry  and  harsh.  This  may  be 
overcome  by  the  use  of  vaseline,  which  should  be  thoroughly 
rubbed  into  the  skin  before  milking.  Slow  and  weak-handed 
milking  also  encourages  hard  milking.  Thus  when  neglect  and 
weak-handed  milking  have  developed  a  thoroughly  hard  milker 
she  may  often  be  brought  back  into  normal  condition  by  the 
application  of  oil  and  strong  hands. 

Leaking  teats  are  occasionally  a  great  annoyance,  since  they 
not  only  permit  the  waste  of  a  considerable  amount  of  the  milk 
so  preciously  formed,  but  so  saturate  the  floor  beneath  the  animal 
that  the  stall  becomes  sour.  This  in  turn  not  only  produces  a 
bad  odor  in  the  barn,  but  infects  the  animal  as  she  lies  in  her 
place  and  increases  the  likelihood  of  milk  being  produced  which 
will  sour  abnormally  soon.  Occasionally  such  leaks  may  be 
prevented  by  coating  the  tip  of  the  teat  with  a  little  collodion 
immediately  following  milking.  Alum  rubbed  on  the  moist 
end  of  the  teat  immediately  following  milking  may  aid  somewhat. 

Name  the  Cows. — Every  cow  in  the  barn  should  be  given  a 
name  and  be  called  by  that  name  sufficiently  often  and  clearly 
to  enable  her  to  learn  it.     It  gives  individuality  to  the  animals 


WATERING  173 

and  increases  the  interest  on  the  part  of  the  attendants.  Further, 
the  name  often  proves  valuable  in  preventing  cows  from  wander- 
ing into  forbidden  parts  of  the  bam,  for  when  they  are  seen 
starting,  if  spoken  to  clearly,  and  called  by  name  they  realize 
that  they  have  been  discovered  and  return  to  their  own  stall  or 
pass  out  as  desired. 

Every  cow  should  be  given  her  own  place  in  the  bam,  if 
possible,  and  taken  to  that  place  upon  the  first  visit  to  the  barn. 
When  led  directly  to  the  right  place  and  tied  and  fed  she  soon 
learns  her  place  and  takes  it  of  her  own  accord,  thus  preventing 
confusion  and  accidents  so  liable  to  result  if  a  barn  is  opened  to 
a  herd,  the  individuals  of  which  have  no  definite  place. 

Watering. — Cows  require  from  three  to  five  gallons,  twenty- 
five  to  forty  pounds  of  water,  per  day  when  dry  and  from  three 
to  four  times  that  amount  when  milking.  In  calculating  tank 
capacity  160  pounds  or  twenty  gallons  will  be  required  each 
day  for  each  cow.  If  the  cow  is  compelled  to  drink  ice  water 
in  winter  the  feeder  may  calculate  that  the  heat  in  two  pounds 
of  hay  will  be  required  simply  to  warm  the  water  from  the  tem- 
perature of  the  pond  or  icy  tank  to  that  of  the  animal's  body  and 
that  half  or  more  of  this  loss  can  be  saved  by  tempering  the 
drinking  water  to  about  70  or  80  degrees.  This  is  particularly 
desirable  when  cows  are  watered  from  a  large  tank  out  of  doors. 
The  violent  shivering  so  often  seen  in  cows  and  horses  just  after 
drinking  a  lot  of  cold  water  is  nature's  way  of  giving  the  animal 
exercise  to  warm  the  water.  (See  paragraph  on  Stable  Tem- 
perature.) "While  some  cows  will  drink  only  once  a  day  by 
preference,  most  desire  to  drink  at  least  twice.  A  cow  milked 
very  heavily  should  be  watered  at  least  four  times  a  day  or,  better, 
have  water  available  at  all  times,  either  in  a  pail  or  drinking 
fountain. 

Methods  of  Watering  in  Barn. — A  private  drinking  foun- 
tain for  each  cow  is  not  essential  to  economical  milk  production, 
nor  even  to  high  production.  They  are  expensive  to  install 
and  necessitate  labor  in  keeping  them  clean.  Further  than  this, 
it  will  be  found  good  practice,  even  in  cold  weather,  to  turn 
the  cows  out  once  or  twice  a  day  to  give  them  a  chance  to  limber 


174  DAIRY  HERD  MANAGEMENT 

up  by  a  little  walk  and  opportunity  to  discover  one  another. 
Unless  use  is  made  of  this  fact  the  intense  dairy  cows  are  liable 
to  go  over  period  after  period  of  heat  unnoticed.  During  winter 
the  cows  should  be  watered  in  the  yard  on  warm  days  and  from  a 
tank:  at  a  convenient  place  in  the  stable  during  severe  weather. 

It,  however,  is  exceedingly  convenient  to  have  a  watering 
device  in  the  stable  whereby  the  cows  may  be  watered  while 
still  in  their  stalls  (Fig.  GO).  A  convenient  method  of  doing 
this  is  to  run  a  water  pipe  along  the  top  of  the  cement  base  of 
the  manger  in  front  of  the  cows,  then  to  have  holes  drilled  at 
intervals  to  allow  the  escape  of  water  into  the  concrete  manger. 
Thus  all  cows  receive  water  at  the  same  moment.  This  pre- 
vents reaching  and  slipping,  also  saves  water. 

Another  convenient  method,  where  the  manger  will  not  per- 
mit its  use  as  a  trough,  is  to  extend  the  water  pipe  in  front  of  the 
cows  with  a  faucet  and  short  hose  between  each  two  cows.  A  pail 
may  then  be  set  into  the  manger  and  water  drawn  directly  into 
it  from  the  pipe  close  by.  This  requires  a  little  more  time  but 
is  cheap  of  installation,  and  will  not  be  needed  except  during 
severe  weather  when  field  work  is  usually  not  pressing. 

Salt  Requirement. — Xot  only  from  nature  in  general,  but  by 
exact  experiments,  it  is  known  that  cows  require  salt  in  order 
to  remain  in  health.  In  a  test  a  few  of  the  cows  broke  down 
after  less  than  a  month  of  salt  fasting,  whereas  others  withstood 
the  strain  for  more  than  a  year,  but  these  finally  and  suddenly 
developed  a  thoroughly  miserable  condition,  which,  however,  was 
quickly  alleviated  by  the  addition  of  salt  to  the  ration.  Heavy 
milkers  need  more  salt  than  those  that  give  but  little  milk.  Salt 
not  only  whets  the  appetite  of  the  cow,  but  seems  also  to  lessen 
the  waste  from  the  body  of  protein  of  feed  or  muscle,  or  in 
other  words,  a  little  salt  regularly  fed  or  placed  where  the  cow 
may  eat  it  at  will  tends  to  save  other  feedstuff's.  The  fact  that 
the  addition  of  salt  to  hay  or  grain  mixture  makes  the  feed  more 
palatable  is  an  important  item,  since  feed  that  is  well  liked  is 
more  easily  and  thoroughly  digested.  Cows  need  about  one 
ounce  of  salt  per  day  on  the  average.  Salt  bricks  attached  to  the 
side  of  the  stall  are  of  no  particular  advantage.   Common  barrel 


CHANGE  OF  ROUTINE 


175 


salt  costs  much  less  and  is  more  easily  given  and  also  permits 
being  mixed  with  the  grain  or  the  admixture  of  bone  meal,  which 
is  a  special  advantage  to  young  stock. 

Change  of  routine  in  doing  the  work  of  the  stable  should  be 
avoided  so  far  as  possible.  It  is  preferable  that  the  feed  for  the 
day  be  divided  into  two  equal  parts  and  fed,  half  in  the  morning 
and  half  in  the  evening.  The  grain  should  be  fed  first  and 
while  it  is  being  consumed  the  milking  should  be  done.  This 
aids  in  getting  the  cow  into  an  agreeable  frame  of  mind  and 
lessens  the  likelihood  of  a  quarrel  with  the  milker  and  makes  for 


Fia.  60. — The  drinking  fountain,  convenient  but  not  essential.     (Photo  loaned  by  James 
Mig.  Co.) 

larger  flow  of  milk.  Hay  should  be  fed  after  milking  because 
it  will  fill  the  air  of  the  stable  with  dust,  which  dust  carries 
immense  quantities  of  mould,  and  bacteria,  which  will  hasten 
the  spoiling  of  the  milk  if  permitted  to  enter  it.  Silage  should 
be  fed  after  milking  because  of  its  odor.  Cows  should  be 
watered  twice  a  day,  once  in  the  morning  after  eating  their  feed 
and  again  in  the  afternoon  just  before  being  fed. 

Punctuality  and  regularity  are  very  positive  virtues  in  dairy 
workers,  for  not  only  does  the  work  itself  depend  on  it,  but  the 
amount  of  milk  the  cows  will  yield  as  well.     Even  with  proper 


176  DAIRY  HERD  MANAGEMENT 

feed  and  comfort,  if  regularity  is  lacking,  a  cow  will  not  yield 
what  she  otherwise  would. 

A  dog  on  a  dairy  farm  may  or  may  not  be  a  nuisance ;  that 
depends  upon  his  character  and  training.  The  ordinary  sort, 
however,  is  an  expensive  luxury  which  is  not  to  be  recommended. 
A  good  Shepherd  or  Collie,  however,  may  very  readily  be  trained 
not  only  to  save  many  steps,  but  also  to  do  general  police  duty  on 
a  livestock  farm  and  thereby  be  of  real  value. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  normal  gestation  period  for  cows? 

2.  What  time  of  the  year  is  generally  the  best  time  for  cows  to  freshen? 

Why? 

3.  How  may  a  spring  cow  be  put  on  to  a  fall-calving  schedule? 

4.  How  much  rest  does  a  cow  need  between  lactation  periods? 

5.  Tell  how  to  dry  off  a  cow. 

G.  How   should  the  dry   cow  be  fed? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  "conditioning"  a  cow? 

8.  How  may  the  manure  serve  as  an  index  in  feeding? 
!).  When  should  cows  be  milked  before  calving? 

10.  What  care   should   be  given  at  calving  time? 

11.  How  should  the  cow  be  cared  for  after  calving? 

12.  How  many  times  a  day  should  a  cow  be  milked  when  fresh? 

13.  At  what  time  does  a  cow  give  most  milk? 

14.  How  soon  after  calving  ought  a  cow  to  be  bred? 

15._What  percentage  of  a  mature  cow's  record  is  the  first  year  of  work? 
Second  year  ?    Third  year  ? 

16.  How  may  the  feed  affect  the  test  of  milk  ? 

17.  What  effect  has  a  drought  on  the  quality  of  milk? 

18.  What  effect  does  turning  cows  out  to  pasture  in  the  spring  have  upon 

the  quality  of  milk  yielded? 

19.  Which  is  preferable,  a  large  or  a  small  pasture  for  cows? 

20.  How  many  acres  are  required  to  pasture  a  cow? 

21.  How  is  midsummer  short  pasture  to  be  met? 

22.  How  should  milking  be  done? 

23.  What  is  the  value  of  the  Heglund  method  of  milking? 

24.  How  do  the  first  and  the  last  milk  drawn  from  a  cow  differ? 

25.  What  of  the  milking  machine?     Have  you  seen  one  work? 

26.  What  temperature  is  best  suited  to  dairy  cows? 

27.  Discuss  light  in  the  dairy  barn. 

28.  What  is  the  best  way  to  dehorn  ? 

20.  How  may  hard  milking  be  made  easier? 


CHAPTER  XX 
HOW  CAN  I  GET  THE  MOST  FROM  THE  COWS  I  HAVE? 

The  immediate  problem  which  confronts  many,  probably 
most,  American  farmers  to-day  is  not  so  much  what  breed  or 
strain  of  cows  would  be  most  profitable  to  keep  if  they  could 
have  what  they  want,  but  rather  how  to  get  the  greatest  returns 
from  what  they  now  have.  All  realize  that  a  few  cows  are 
outstandingly  valuable  and  that  there  is  a  small  horde  of  lesser 
power  that  are  very  good,  but  the  number  of  high-producing 
cows  is  altogether  too  small  to  furnish  each  farmer  with  a  herd 
or  even  with  one  specimen,  and  that  for  some  time  the  bulk  of 
the  dairy  work  of  this  country  must  of  necessity  be  done  by 
grades  only  moderately  well  suited  to  their  tasks. 

Common  cows  have  repeatedly  shown  themselves  capable  of 
producing  much  more  and  more  economically  than  is  generally 
realized,  even  50  to  100  pounds  of  fat  per  year.  To  secure  such 
results,  however,  the  "  common  "  cow  must  be  accorded  "  pure 
bred  "  care,  i.e.,  she  must  be  fed  and  treated  right.  In  general, 
farmers  should  keep  the  cattle  they  now  have,  and  build  up. 
The  following  are  the  chief  points  in  getting  what  we  can  out 
of  the  cows  we  now  have : 

1.  Fall  fresh  to  produce  more  milk.      See  Chapter  XIX. 

2.  Comfortably  housed  to  save  feed.      See  Chapter  XXI. 

3.  Succulent  feed,  silage,  to  encourage  liberal  eating.  See 
Chapter  XXIII. 

4.  Feeding  liberally  so  cow  can  have  something  to  work  on. 
See  Chapter  XXIII. 

5.  Fair  amount  of  grain  so  cows  may  be  able  to  consume  more 
nutriment.     See  Chapter  XXIII. 

6.  Balance  of  nutrients,  so  the  body  and  the  milk  may  be 
adequately  fed.     See  Chapter  XXIII. 

7.  Treated  with  kindness  so  she  will  be  willing  and  glad  to 
let  down  the  milk.     See  Chapter  XIX. 

12  177 


178  QUESTIONS 

8.  Regularly  fed  and  milked  so  the  cow's  system  may  not 
be  frequently  thrown  out  of  tune.      See  Chapter  XIX. 

9.  Liberally  watered,  twice  daily.     See  Chapter  XIX. 

10.  Protected  from  heat  and  llies  in  summer.  See  Chapter 
XIX. 

11.  Milked  quickly  and  thoroughly.     See  Chapter  XIX. 

12.  Dehorned.     See  Chapter  XIX. 

13.  Milk  weighed  and  tested.     See  Chapter  XVIII. 

14.  Best  cows  kept  and  bred  to  pure-bred  bull. 

Our  grade  cows  must  of  necessity  serve  as  foundation,  but 
we  should  aim  to  build  higher  than  the  foundation  only.  Life  is 
too  short  to  spend  on  inefficient  cows  any  longer  than  necessary. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How   should   a   man   proceed   to   secure   a   profitable   dairy   herd  when 

he  has  no  cows  to  start  with  ? 

2.  When  he  has  a  herd  of  untested  grades  on  hand? 

3.  What  three  things  should  guide  him  in  selecting  a  breed? 

4.  What  points  should  be  looked  out  for  in  selecting  a  bull? 

,  5.  What  "off  color"  in  Guernsey  and  in  Holstein  bulls  may  sometimes  be 
taken  advantage  of  ? 

6.  What  must  a  pedigree  show  in  order  to  be  a  good  one? 

7.  What  are  the  advantages  of  community  breeding? 

8.  How  are  community  breeding  associations  operated? 

9.  How  are  daily  milk  records  valuable? 

10.  Show  how  the  three-day  record  is  worked. 

11.  What  is  the  plan  of  operation  of  cooperative  dairy  test  associations? 

12.  What  results  have  been  attained  by  organized  cow  testing? 


it 


CHAPTER  XXI 
SOME  FEATURES  OF  THE  DAIRY  BARN 

The  stable  need  not  be  expensive  but  should  be  made  to 
furnish  as  nearly  as  possible  the  condition  which  naturally 
surrounds  the  cows  during  that  time  of  year  in  which  they 
universally  produce  milk  most  abundantly,  namely,  the  spring 
or  early  summer.  The  cow  does  not  care  for  the  time  of  year, 
but  rather  for  conditions  (Fig.  61). 

Certain  features  of  the  dairy  barn  and  cow  stable  are  very 
often  under  discussion,  chief  among  which  are  such  matters  as 
the  preferable  kind  of  floor,  whether  cows  should  be  faced  out- 
ward or  inward,  and  the  like. 

Hay  storage  over  a  cow  stable  is  thoroughly  permissible  even 
in  well  organized  cow  barns,  provided  simply  that  there  be  a  good 
tight  floor  between  the  hay  and  the  cows.  The  breath  of  stock 
injures,  or  even  ruins,  hay  or  fodder  if  stored  above  without 
being  protected.  It  is  economy  to  provide  the  hay  floor.  A-lso 
the  dust  that  gathers  on  hay  or  straw  over  stock  will  so  easily 
and  so  often  be  knocked  off  into  the  air  of  the  stable  that  clean 
milk  could  only  with  difficulty  be  produced  under  such  conditions. 

The  floor  material  best  adapted  for  use  in  dairy  cow  stables 
is  concrete.  This  may  well  be  left  exposed  in  walks,  alleys, 
gutters  and  mangers,  and  may  be  a  foundation  under  the  cows, 
but  should  be  overlaid  with  some  non-conductor  of  moisture 
and  heat  where  the  cows  must  stand  and  lie.  Common  soft-wood 
plank  soaked  in  tar  or  creosote  will  render  much  good  service, 
but  has  the  disadvantage  of  wearing  out  too  quickly  and  also  of 
offering  many  cracks  which,  if  not  filled  with  tar,  will  collect 
dirt.  Cork  bricks  are  made  of  bits  of  cork  compressed  into  the 
form  of  common  bricks,  being  held  together  by  asphaltum  or 
similar  material.  Such  brick  are  good  as  covering  for  a  strong, 
coarse  concrete  foundation,  especially  in  being  warm,  not  severely 
hard  on  the  cow's  feet,  and  waterproof  (Fig.  62). 

The  cost  of  cork  brick  is  about  $48  to  $50  per  1000  and 

179 


183 


SOME  FEATURES  OF  THE  DAIRY  FARM 


50  to  60  bricks  will  be  required  per  cow.  Of  consequence  too 
is  the  fact  that  they  are  not  made  uniform  in  thickness,  so  that  a 
smooth  floor  top  is  difficult  to  make. 

Creosote  wooden  blocks,  such  as  are  now  so  much  employed 
in  surfacing  city  streets,  are  now  being  much  used  for  cow-stable 
floors.  They  are  cheap,  very  durable,  sanitary  and  warm.  Of 
these  blocks,  about  ninety  will  be  needed  per  cow. 

An  insulating  layer  in  the  concrete  makes  the  floor  dry  and 
warm.     The  time  to  install  the  insulating  layer  is  when  the 


Fig.  61. — A  typical  Vermont  barn.   Nott 


floor  is  being  constructed.  After  the  rough  grouting  is  poured 
a  layer  of  tar  paper  is  nailed  on  it  all  over  the  cow  beds.  The 
nail  heads  are  left  projecting  half  an  inch  so  that  when  the 
finish  coat  is  poured  the  nails  will  help  to  hold  it  in  place.  Two 
coats  of  coal-tar  paint  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  the  tar  paper. 
Either  will  prevent  the  capillary  action  of  moisture  through  the 
cement  and  the  floor  will  be  warm  and  dry.  The  top  layer  of 
cement  will  retain  the  heat  of  animals  much  as  soapstone  does. 
Facing  cows  inward  makes  feeding  easier  and  the  cleaning 
is  as  easy  if  a  litter  carrier  be  provided.  But  the  plan  has  the 
distinct  disadvantage  in  that  the  walls  are  certain  in  a  very  few 


FACING  THE  COWS  OUTWAKD 


181 


days  to  become  fouled  by  the  spattering  manure  unless  a  wide 
walk  is  left  behind  the  cows,  or  a  deep  manure  gutter  is  provided. 
Any  manure  on  the  walls  must  remain  to  be  unsightly  and  a 
reproach  to  the  manager  or  be  scrubbed  off.  It  should  be  re- 
membered too  that  fresh  manure  contains  a  slimy  substance  from 
walls  of  the  cow's  intestines  which  renders  it  sticky.  On  the 
early-day  log  stables  fresh  cow  manure  was  regularly  used  as  a 
mortar  to  plaster  up  the  cracks  between  logs  and  chinks  where 
it  would  withstand  weathering  for  several  months.  On  the 
wall  behind  the  cow  it  will  remain  until  scrubbed  off.  Such 
work  is  expensive  in  time  and  wholly  non-productive. 


and  the  cork 


Many  good  dairymen  provide  deep  gutters  ior  the  manure 
and  wide  walks  behind  the  cows,  and  then  prefer  to  have  the 
cows  face  inward.  They  then  have  their  eyes  away  from  the 
bright  light  of  windows. 

By  facing  the  cows  outward  the  walls  are  kept  clean  and  the 
floor  between  the  two  rows  of  cows  may  be  cleaned  far  more 
easily  than  the  walls.  Furthermore,  the  difference  in  the 
standard  of  cleanliness  for  the  walls  and  the  floor  renders  it 
many  times  more  easy  to  keep  a  cow  stable  presentable  when  the 
cows  face  outward  rather  than  inward.     If  cows  face  outward 


182  SOME  FEATURES  OF  THE  DAIRY  FARM 

it  is  very  often  true  economy  to  make  the  stable  wide  enough 
to  permit  a  wagon  or  even  a  three-horse  manure  spreader  to  be 
driven  through  the  barn  from  end  to  end,  in  order  that  the 
manure  may  be  removed  with  the  least  possible  amount  of  labor 
and  drawn  directly  to  the  fields  (Fig.  63). 

Arranged  so,  the  cows  have  a  wide  door  through  which  to 
enter  the  stable,  thus  lessening  the  danger  of  accidents  due  to 
crowding.  It  also  gives  the  cows  more  room  to  enter  and  leave 
their  stalls  in  comfort  and  safety. 

In  sale  stables  too  it  is  desirable  to  have  all  the  animals  in 
sight  from  one  point.  They  show  up  to  better  advantage.  All 
things  considered,  there  are  many  who  prefer  the  out-facing 
system.  Each  plan  has  its  own  advantages,  and  both  plans 
vail  continue  to  be  followed  by  good  dairymen. 

Ventilation  of  the  Stable. — In  a  sense,  air  or  the  oxygen 
contained  in  it,  is  a  food,  since  the  carbon  contained  in  the  feed 
eaten  cannot  undergo  oxidation  and  liberate  heat  and  energy 
without  it  Furthermore,  body  tissues  are  constantly  wearing 
out  and,  in  the  form  of  carbon  dioxide,  are  being  thrown  off 
largely  in  the  exhaled  air.  Much  moisture  and  some  organic 
particles  also  escape  from  the  body  in  the  warm  breath  and  in 
addition  to  these  exhaled  impurities,  various  gases,  such  as 
ammonia  and  marsh  gas,  are  passed  which  aid  in  defiling  the 
air.  Molds  and  bacteria  grow  abundantly  in  straw  and  hay  in 
an  atmosphere  so  moist  and  full  of  organic  matter. 

Diseases  of  all  sorts  are  more  liable  to  be  spread  and  con- 
tracted, and  to  be  intense  in  their  action  in  a  badly  ventilated 
stable.  Even  if  specific  diseases  are  not  present,  however,  a  bad 
atmosphere  is  undesirable  because  it  is  depressing  in  every 
respect  on  both  the  stock  and  the  laborers  who  must  spend  a 
portion  of  their  time  in  it. 

The  amount  of  air  breathed  by  an  average  cow  is  given  by 
King  1  as  about  2800  cubic  feet  in  24  hours  or  about  224  pounds, 
— about  twice  the  weight  of  feed  and  water  required.  This  is 
not  to  say  that  all  oxygen  in  such  a  volume  of  air  was  used. 

It  is  generally  calculated  that  the  stable  should  be  sufficiently 

1  King,  F.  H.     Physics  of  Agriculture,  Second  Edition,  p.  354. 


GENERAL  DAIRY  BARN 


183 


184  SOME  FEATURES  OF  THE  DAIRY  FARM 

commodious  to  permit  600  cubic  feet  of  air  space  per  cow.  This, 
as  a  necessity,  however,  nmsl  depend  upon  the  rate  of  exchange 
of  the  air.  There  should  be  some  inflow  and  outflow  of  air  even 
in  the  largest  stables.  Too  much  circulation  in  winter  is 
obviously  detrimental.  In  this  aggravating  matter  the  southern 
dairyman,  with  his  lattice-sided  barns,  has  a  decided  advantage. 

The  forces  that  produce  ventilation  in  stables  are  (a)  a 
wind  pressure  against  the  side  of  the  building  tending  to  force 
air  in ;  and  a  suction  on  the  opposite  side  which  tends  to  draw  it 
out;  (b)  the  air  friction  over  the  top  of  the  ventilator  flue  caus- 
ing a  draft  as  in  tall  chimneys  and  (c)  the  difference  in  the 
temperature  between  the  air  of  the  stable  and  that  of  the  outside. 
The  relative  values  of  these  three  forces  will  naturally  vary 
continually  with  conditions  (Fig.  64). 

A  Choice  of  Systems. — 'Poorly  constructed  stables  will  need 
no  system  of  ventilation.  Many  northern  barns  need  battening 
rather  than  more  airing. 

During  much  of  the  year,  even  of  winter  in  the  northern 
states,  windows  may  safely  be  opened  to  hasten  air  circulation, 
especially  if  the  windows  be  hinged  at  the  bottom  and  set  to  slant 
inward  when  open  (Fig.  65). 

On  many  occasions,  when  the  wind  is  blowing  strongly,  a 
curtain  of  common  cotton  cheesecloth  or  muslin,  or  burlap  sack- 
ing, may  be  tacked  over  the  window.  This  is  best  done  by 
first  tacking  the  muslin  onto  a  frame  and  slipping  the  frame 
into  place  when  needed  in  cold  weather.  There  are  times  and 
conditions,  however,  when  a  more  systematic  ventilation  is 
desirable.  For  such  there  is  probably  none  better  than  the 
well  known  King  system,  developed  by  Prof.  F.  IT.  King,  of 
Wisconsin  University. 

The  essential  features  of  the  King  system  are:  (1)  An  out- 
going air  duct  and  (2)  an  opportunity  for  air  to  enter  to  take 
the  place  of  that  drawn  out.  The  out-going  ventilator  shaft 
should  be  comparatively  large  and  smooth  to  reduce  friction 
within,  as  straight  as  consistent  with  the  plan  of  the  barn  and  ex- 
tending up  through  the  roof,  not  terminating  in  the  hay  loft  but 
open  into  the  cupola.     The  air  duct  should  be  of  wood  or  if  of 


THE  LOCATION  OF  THE  FLUE  185 

tin  or  galvanized  iron,  be  covered  over  with  boards.  This  insula- 
tion is  to  prevent  the  cold  air  of  the  hay  loft  from  so  cooling  the 
out-going  air  as  to  check  it,  and  turn  it  downward.  The  air 
inlets  should  be  smaller  and  of  greater  number  than  the  outlets. 
They  consist  of  shorter  shafts  through  which  the  air  must  rise 
before  entering  the  barn. 


Sje 


Fig.  64. — Elevation  Woodland  Dairy  Farm  barn.  Note  system  of  ventilation.  a, 
outlet  in  summer;  b,  outlet  in  winter;  and  d,  inlet  at  all  times.  Also  the  dirt-tight  floor 
over  the  stock.     Straw  for  bedding  as  well  as  hay  for  feed  is  stored  in  the  loft. 

The  location  of  the  flue  would  best  be  near  the  center  of 
the  stable.  This  permits  a  straight  duct  and  encourages  draught 
but  may  be  against  the  walls  and  roof.  In  summer  the  warm 
air  at  the  top  of  the  stable  may  be  drawn  away,  while  in  winter 
the  suction  may  commence  at  the  floor  as  shown  in  figure  64. 
The  air  inlets  should  be  made  in  the  walls  so  as  to  admit  the  fresh 


186  SOME  FEATURES  OF  THE  DAIRY  FARM 

air  near  the  top  of  the  stable,  just  below  the  hay  floor,  or,  if  no 
hay  is  stored  overhead,  about  seven  feet  from  the  floor. 

Much  trouble  has  been  experienced  with  the  system  if  not 
properly  installed.  The  author  hesitates  to  recommend  it  or 
any  other  system  to  those  who  do  not  understand  its  principles. 
In  practice,  a  thoughtful  use  of  windows  and  muslin  curtains 
will  go  a  long  way  toward  solving  the  problem. 

The  muslin  curtain  at  the  window  furnishes  an  economical 
and  fairly  efficient  means  of  drying  the  atmosphere  of  the  stable 
and  permits  thorough  mixing  of  fresh  air  with  the  old.  If 
the  muslin  is  fastened  to  a  frame  that  may  be  slid  into  place  it 
may  often  be  used  when  the  temperature  or  the  wind  would 
not  permit  windows  to  be  opened  with  safety.  On  mild  days, 
of  which  all  parts  of  the  United  States  have  so  many,  the  doors 
or  top  half  of  the  doors  and  windows  may  be  opened  with  safety 
and  good  results.  Under  some  circumstances  the  muslin  cur- 
tain is  to  be  recommended  over  any  other  system. 

The  temperature  of  the  stable  should,  so  far  as  possible,  not 
be  permitted  to  go  lower  than  about  45  and  not  much  higher 
than  about  70  degrees.  A  temperature  of  about  60  degrees 
seems  to  be  the  one  best  suited  to  dairy  cows.  A  high  tempera- 
ture, 85  degrees  or  above,  causes  the  cow  to  lose  her  appetite,  and 
go  "off  feed  "  easily  if  being  at  all  crowded.  A  cold  tempera- 
ture in  the  stable,  on  the  other  hand,  cools  the  cow's  body  just  as 
it  would  any  other  warm  object  and  requires  that  the  cow  make 
it  up  by  eating  more  feed.  The  temperature  must  be  main- 
tained if  life  is  to  continue.  Nature's  safety  valve  in  this 
matter  is  tense  muscles  and  shivering.  Literally,  therefore,  a 
cold  cow  must  shiver  herself  warm,  as  queer  as  this  may  sound. 
We  all  know  how  tired  we  feel  in  the  morning  after  having 
"  slept  cold."  We  were  tired  because  our  muscles  had  been  at 
work,  drawn  tense,  to  keep  us  warmer. 

Good  light  is  necessary  in  the  stable  for  ease  in  doing  the 
work  and  for  keeping  it  clean,  as  wrell  as  being  desirable  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  cow  herself.  Too  much  li<rht,  however,  is 
wearying  to  any  animal  and  thus  expensive.  The  most  serious 
objection  to  facing  cows  outward  is  that  they  will  face  more  or 


THE  DIMENSIONS  OF  THE  STALLS 


187 


less  directly  against  the  windows.  But  if  these  are  only  mod- 
erate in  number  and  placed  horizontally  so  that  the  bottom  is 
about  four  and  one-half  feet  from  the  floor,  the  light  will  not  be 
severe  on  any  and  will  be  actually  restful  to  all  those  located 
between  the  windows. 

To  make  it  lighter  for  work  throughout  the  stable  the  whole 
interior  may  be  whitewashed.  In  fact  a  good  whitewashing- 
applied  by  means  of  a  spray  pump  to  reach  the  crevices  and 
cracks  is  to  be  recommended  once  or  twice  a  year  to  kill  disease 
and  other  germs.  Many  barns  have  been  built,  of  late  years, 
with  so  much  glass  surface  as  to  be  too  warm  on  bright  days 
and  too  cold  on  windy  ones  and  at  the  same  time  not  particu- 
larly well  lighted  because  the  interior  was  left  in  some  dark  color. 
A  more  wholesome  and  dependable  condition  can  be  procured 
by  employing  less  glass  and  more  whitewash. 

The  dimensions  of  the  stalls  best  suited  to  dairy  cows  nat- 
urally vary  with  the  breed  or  rather  the  size  of  the  cows  to  be 
fitted.    The  following  table  will  indicate  the  needed  distances: 


Name  of  Breed. 

Box  Stall. 

Width  of 
Single  Stall. 

Distance  from  Manger 
to  Gutter. 

Thick- 
ness of 
Neck. 

Feel 
10  x  12 
10  x  12 
10  x  12 
9x  10 
9x  10 
9  x  10 

3  ft.     6  in. 
3  ft.     6  in. 
3  ft.  10  in. 
3  ft.    3  in. 
3  ft.     3  in. 
3  ft.     3  in. 
2  ft.     3  in. 

4  ft.     4  in.  to  5  ft.  2  in. 
4  ft.     6  in.  to  5  ft.  3  in. 
4  ft.     8  in.  to  5  ft.  4  in. 
4  ft.     4  in.  to  5  ft.  0  in. 
3  ft.  10  in.  to  4  ft.  8  in. 
3  ft.  10  in.  to  4  ft.  6  in. 

Inches 
5  to  7 

5  to  6 

6  to  8 
4  to  5 
4  to  5 
4  to  5 
3  to  4 

Naturally,  the  breed  of  cows  to  be  kept  should  be  settled 
upon  before  the  stable  is  built. 

It  is  found  very  convenient  to  have  the  width  of  the  bed 
on  which  the  cows  stand  vary  from,  say  5  feet  3  inches  at  one 
end  to  4  feet  3  inches  at  the  other,  if  Holsteins  are  kept,  or  from 
4  feet  6  inches  to  3  feet  10  inches  for  Jerseys.  In  this  way 
smaller  cows  of  the  breed  or  young  stock  may  be  placed  at  one 
end  of  the  barn  and  larger  ones  at  the  other  end,  where  they 
all  will  be  kept  clean. 

As  to  the  width  needed,  many  people  try  to  save  space  and 
in  doing  so  cramp  the  cows  and  surely  cause  them  to  be  uncom- 


188 


SOME  FEATURES  OF  THE  DAIRY  FARM 


fortable.  An  increase  in  width,  of  a  Holstein  cow's  stall  from 
3  feet  4  inches  to  3  feet  6  inches  is  as  nothing  compared  with 
•the  commodious  apartments  generally  provided  beef  cattle. 
Bodily  comfort  is  true  economy  with  dairy  cows. 

The  manger  may  very  profitably  be  made  of  concrete,  but 
care  should  be  taken  to  build  up  the  bottom  to  at  least  one  and 
better  two  inches  higher  level  than  the  cow's  feet.  It  should 
also  be  made  to  slant  toward  the  cow  in  order  that  she  may  reach 
her  feed  without  straining  or  slipping  (Fig.  05). 


Fig.  65. — Note  broad  feed  alley  and  slant  of  windows. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Under  what  conditions  may  hay  very  properly  be  stored  over  cows? 

2.  What  material  is  best  adapted  for  use  as  stable  floors? 

3.  What  material  should  be  used  on  the  floor  where  the  cows  stand? 

4.  Tell  the  advantages  of  facing  the  cows  inward  in  the  stable. 

5.  What  are  the  advantages  or  disadvantages  of  facing  the  cows  outward  ?- 
G.  How  may  a  stable  most  economically  be  lighted? 

7.  What  other  advantages  are  to  be  gained  by  thorough  whitewashing? 

8.  Give  the  dimensions  of  stall  best  suited  to  the  cows  of  various  breeds. 

9.  Explain  the  forces  that  cause  a  circulation  of  air  in  the  King  system 

of  ventilation. 
10.  Explain  the  use  of  the  muslin  curtain. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE* 

While  it  is  not  intended  that  this  volume  shall  be  a  book  on 
veterinary  practice,  it  is  well  known  that  the  regular  herdsman 
or  caretaker  should  be  able  quickly  to  recognize  when  his  charges 
are  out  of  health  and  be  able  to  treat  the  commoner  or  simpler 
afflictions.  These  considered  here  are  those  most  frequently 
to  be  dealt  with. 

TUBERCULOSIS 

Tuberculosis  is  a  widespread  infectious  disease  caused  by  the 
bacteria  of  tuberculosis  affecting  man  and  lower  animals. 

Occurrence. — Tuberculosis  exists  in  all  civilized  countries. 
In  America  the  disease  was  introduced  with  early  importations 
of  cattle  and  has  gradually  spread  until  no  section  of  the  country 
is  free  from  it.  The  exact  percentage  of  tuberculous  animals 
in  any  country  is  unknown,  but  the  relative  number  has  been 
determined  by  tuberculin  testing  and  by  post-mortem  examina- 
tions in  abattoirs.  The  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  in  his  report  for 
1908,  estimated  that  one  per  cent  of  beef  cattle  and  ten  per  cent 
of  dairy  cattle  were  tuberculous. 

Importance. — Tuberculosis  is  to-day  the  most  serious  prob- 
lem confronting  the  livestock  industry.  The  disease  is  prob- 
ably not  on  the  increase  among  cattle,  but  is  becoming  more 
prevalent  among  swine  and  poultry.  Thousands  of  infants  and 
young  children  receive  cow's  milk  as  their  chief  diet  and  it  is 
usually  consumed  in  the  raw  state.  Milk  from  cows  affected 
with  tuberculosis  often  contains  living  virulent  bacilli  of  tuber- 
culosis. Children  consuming  this  milk  may  develop  tuberculosis, 
which  is  frequent  cause  of  death.  Scientific  investigations  show 
that  a  certain  percentage  of  human  tuberculosis  is  of  bovine 
origin,  the  germs  being  transferred  through  the  use  of  milk, 
butter,  and  cheese,  or  improperly  cooked  meat  of  animals. 

Nature  of  Tuberculosis. — Tuberculosis  is,  as  a  rule,  a 
chronic,  insidious  disease  which  spreads  slowly  from  animal  to 
animal  in  a  herd  until  most  of  them  are  affected.     Tuberculosis 

♦Written  by  Dr.  W.  L.  Boyd. 

189 


190  COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE 

develops  very  slowly  and  for  this  reason  many  owners  of  cattle 
do  not  suspect  its  presence  in  their  herd  until  several  animals 
have  become  diseased.  If  tuberculosis  were  rapid  in  its  develop- 
ment and  caused  death  within  a  few  days  like  some  of  the  other 
infectious  diseases  of  cattle,  rigid  measures  would  soon  be 
adopted  in  order  to  check  its  progress  and  dissemination.  In 
many  parts  of  our  country  it  is  customary  to  allow  hogs  to  feed 
in  the  dung  of  cattle.  If  the  cattle  be  tuberculous,  their  manure 
will  quite  often  be  laden  with  virulent  germs  which,  when 
taken  up  by  the  swine,  cause  them  to  become  diseased.  Especially 
is  this  so  in  herds  where  the  disease  has  become  extensive. 
Tuberculosis  is  not  hereditary,  but  the  offspring  of  tuberculous 
parents  acquire  a  predisposition  to  the  disease;  i.e.,  they  are 
more  apt  to  become  affected  with  tuberculosis  when  exposed  to 
the  infection  than  are  the  young  born  from  healthy  parents. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  or  signs  of  tuberculosis  are 
numerous  and  while  some  of  them  are  quite  suggestive  of  tuber- 
culosis, not  one  can  be  relied  upon  with  any  great  degree  of 
certainty  in  the  establishment  of  a  diagnosis.  In  some  infectious 
diseases,  certain  symptoms  occur  which  are  characteristic  of 
that  disease  alone.  Characteristic  symptoms  or  signs  are  not 
observed,  however,  in  tuberculosis.  Tuberculosis  may  be  pres- 
ent in  fat,  sleek-looking  cattle  which  show  no  symptoms  of  ill 
health  (Fig.  66).  Such  cases  can  be  detected  by  the  tuberculin 
test  only.  The  symptoms  of  tuberculosis  vary  according  to  the 
organ  affected.  In  some  instances  unthriftiness  and  loss  of 
flesh  will  be  the  chief  symptoms  observed  (Fig.  67).  When  the 
lungs  are  diseased  a  rather  weak,  subdned,  infrequent  cough 
will  be  noticed.  This  cough  is  most  severe  in  the  early  morn- 
ing or  after  exercise,  and  after  drinking,  respiration  becomes 
more  difficult  and  at  times  quite  rapid.  The  appetite  gradually 
decreases  and  intestinal  derangement  develops.  When  the  in- 
testines are  diseased  diarrhoea  is  a  prominent  symptom.  En- 
largement of  the  superficial  lymph  glands  in  the  region  of  the 
throat  and  neck  are  of  frequent  occurrence.  When  the  glands 
of  the  chest  become  enlarged,  sufficient  pressure  is  at  times 
exerted  on  the  gullet  or  oesophagus  to  cause  the  animal  to  suffer 


SYMPTOMS 
Fig.  66. 


191 


Fig.  67. 

Fig.  66. — Cow  in  good  condition  and  apparently  healthy,  yet  tuberculous.     (Courtesy  of 
M.  H.  Reynolds.) 
Fig.   67. — Bull  thin   and   unthrifty,  due  to  the  effects  of  tuberculosis.     (Courtesy  of 
M.  H.  Reynolds.) 


192  COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE 

from  bloat.  Bloating,  however,  is  not  a  frequent  symptom. 
The  body  temperature  may  be  normal,  although  we  more  fre- 
quently find  it  to  be  irregular,  being  inclined  to  be  much  higher 
in  the  evenings.  Tuberculosis  of  the  udder  manifests  itself 
by  the  formation  of  hard  lumps  or  swellings  in  certain  parts  of 
the  gland.  Milk  from  such  an  udder  should  not  be  used,  as  it 
is  quite  apt  to  be  laden  with  genus. 

The  Manner  by  Which  the  Disease  Spreads. — Tuberculous 
cows  sooner  or  later  give  off  the  germs  which  may  escape,  by  the 
mouth,  the  nose,  in  the  milk,  in  the  manure,  and  in  the  dis- 
charges from  the  genito-urinary  organs.  When  the  germs  are 
thrown  off  in  any  of  the  above-named  ways,  the  disease  is  known 
as  open  tuberculosis.  The  germs  discharged  from  the  mouth 
and  nose  are  coughed  up  from  the  lungs,  some  of  which  are 
swallowed  while  others  are  sprayed  over  the  feed  in  front  of  the 
cow.  Cows  in  adjoining  stalls  may  take  in  these  germs  with 
the  feed  or  the  water  and  thus  contract  the  disease. 

The  manure  and  urine  from  tuberculous  animals  usually 
contain  the  germs  and  will  spread  the  disease  unless  properly 
disposed  of.  Manure  mixed  with  the  germs  of  tuberculosis 
may  fall  into  the  milk  pail  or  be  carried  to  the  milk  direct  by 
the  cow's  tail  and  thus  contaminate  the  milk.  The  germs  are 
not  removed  when  the  milk  is  strained.  When  the  disease  affects 
the  udder  the  milk,  as  a  rule,  contains  the  germs  in  vast  numbers. 
Such  milk  will  readily  transmit  the  disease  to  young  animals. 
Milk  of  this  kind  is  also  very  dangerous  to  young  children. 

The  Manner  by  Which  a  Herd  Becomes  Infected. — The 
principal  ways  through  which  tuberculosis  may  be  introduced 
into  a  herd  are :  First,  through  the  buying  of  cattle  from  other 
herds  infected  with  the  disease.  Buyers  should  purchase  only 
from  healthy  herds  in  order  to  safeguard  their  healthy  animals. 
Second,  calves  may  become  infected  by  feeding  them  milk,  butter- 
milk, or  whey  from  tuberculous  cows.  Such  material  should  not 
be  fed  unless  boiled  or  pasteurized.  Third,  by  allowing  healthy 
stock  to  mingle  with  diseased  animals.  Fourth,  by  keeping  cattle 
in  poorly  ventilated,  insanitary,  dark,  and  unclean  quarters. 

Tuberculin  Test — Only  a  small  percentage  of  tuberculous 


WHAT  IS  TUBERCULIN?  193 

animals  can  be  detected  by  a  physical  examination.  In  many 
cases  only  a  few  symptoms  can  be  determined,  and  these  are  not 
characteristic,  as  they  may  also  occur  in  other  diseases.  The 
tuberculin  test  is  very  accurate  and  when  skillfully  employed 
detects  the  diseased  animals  practically  without  fail. 
.(  What  Is  Tuberculin? — Tuberculin  is  a  fluid  containing  the 
products  (toxins)  of  the  tubercle  germ  without  the  germs  them- 
selves, therefore  when  tuberculin  is  injected  into  healthy  cattle, 
it  cannot  cause  tuberculosis.  Tuberculin  injected  into  tuber- 
culous animals  causes  a  marked  temperature  disturbance.  The 
tuberculin  test  may  be  applied  by  three  different  methods:  (1) 
The  subcutaneous  or  temperature  test;  (2)  the  ophthalmic  test, 
and  (3)  the  intradermal  test. 

The  subcutaneous  test  is  the  oldest  method  and  the  one  most 
commonly  used,  although  the  ophthalmic  and  the  intradermal 
tests  are  thought  to  be  just  as  accurate. 

Tuberculin,  when  injected  into  diseased  cattle,  causes  them 
to  become  feverish  within  eight  to  sixteen  hours  after  the  tuber- 
culin is  administered.  The  fever  lasts  a  short  time  and  then 
subsides.  This  temporary  fever  is  called  "  the  reaction,"  and 
the  animals  so  affected  are  called  "  reactors." 

In  the  subcutaneous  test,  the  tuberculin  is  injected  under 
the  skin,  preferably  in  the  region  of  the  neck.  Two  or  three 
temperatures  are  taken,  two  or  three  hours  apart,  before  the 
tuberculin  is  injected  in  order  to  ascertain  the  animal's  normal 
temperature.  Eight  or  nine  hours  following  the  administration 
of  the  tuberculin,  the  temperatures  are  again  taken  every  two 
hours  until  six  temperatures  have  been  recorded.  The  animals 
which  are  found  to  be  feverish  are  regarded  as  being  tuberculous. 

The  ophthalmic  test  consists  in  inserting  a  drop  of  tuberculin 
into  the  eye  of  the  suspected  animal.  If  the  animal  is  healthy, 
no  change  takes  place,  but  if  affected  with  tuberculosis,  the  eye 
becomes  reddened  and  waters  profusely. 

The   intradermal  test  consists   in  injecting   a  very   small 

amount  of  tuberculin  into  (not  under)  the  thin  folds  of  the  skin 

at  the  base  of  the  tail.     A  reaction  consists  of  the  appearance  of 

a  swelling  about  the  size  of  a  walnut  at  the  site  of  injection, 

13 


194  COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE 

which  remains  for  seventy-two  hours  or  longer  and  disappears 
very  slowly. 

Limitations  of  the  Test. — The  tuberculin  test  should  not  be 
applied  to  cows  that  have  just  calved,  as  the  temperature  at 
this  time  is  apt  to  vary  considerably  from  the  normal.  Calves 
under  six  months  of  age  should  not  be  tested,  as  their  tempera- 
ture is  quite  changeable.  Cattle  in  the  advanced  stages  of 
tuberculosis  sometimes  fail  to  react  to  the  test,  but  such  cases  can 
usually  be  detected  by  a  physical  examination.  Cattle  that 
have  just  recently  become  infected  may  fail  also  to  react.  The 
tuberculin  test,  when  employed  by  thoroughly  competent  men,  is 
by  far  the  most  accurate  method  available  for  detecting  tuber- 
culosis. The  records  of  large  numbers  of  tests  made  by  govern- 
ment officials  show  that  the  tuberculin  test  is  accurate  in  ninety 
to  ninety-five  per  cent  of  animals  tested  (Fig.  68). 

INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  OF  CATTLE 

Infectious  abortion  is  a  specific  infectious  disease  produced 
by  the  germ,  Bacillus  abortus,  and  characterized  by  inflammation 
of  the  mucous  lining  of  the  uterus  (womb)  and  foetal  membranes 
resulting,  as  a  rule,  in  the  expulsion  of  the  fcetus  (calf)  in  an 
immature  condition.  Infectious  abortion  is  known  also  as  con- 
tagious abortion,  epizootic  abortion,  enzootic  abortion,  and 
"  slinking  "  of  calves. 

Cause. — The  bacillus  of  abortion,  which  was  described  in 
1897  by  Prof.  Bang  of  Denmark,  is  a  short  nonmotile  rod  pos- 
sessing peculiar  physical  requirements  which  make  it  rather 
difficult  to  cultivate  artificially.  In  the  diseased  cow  the  organ- 
ism lives  in  the  mucous  lining  of  the  uterus  (womb)  and  it  is 
at  times  found  in  the  milk  of  affected  cows.  Abortion  bacilli 
inhabit  the  intestinal  canal  of  the  affected  foetus.  Outside  of  the 
animal  body  little  is  known  of  the  organism. 

The  Bacillus  abortus  is  capable  of  producing  abortion  experi- 
mentally in  cattle,  mares,  sheep,  goats  and  swine,  by  feeding  and 
by  injecting  the  organisms  into  the  circulation. 

Susceptibility. — Infectious  abortion  is  chiefly  a  disease  of 
heifers,  yet  in  given  herds  there  will  be  certain  periods  in  which 
all  of  the  cows  Avill  abort  regardless  of  age.  Infectious  abortion 
does  not  confine  its  ravages  entirely  to  dairy  breeds,  but  attacks 


HOW  ABORTION  BECOMES  DISSEMINATED 


195 


other  breeds  of  cattle  with  little  less  severity.  Many  heifers 
will  abort  once  and  then  carry  their  second  calf  for  the  full 
period.  A  less  number  will  abort  their  second  calf  and  it  is  a 
rare  condition  when  a  cow  aborts  the  third  time.  Heifers  from 
aborting  mothers  may  be  less  susceptible  than  those  born  to 
healthy  or  noninfected  dams. 

The  Manner  by  Which  Abortion  Becomes  Disseminated. — 
The  mucous  lining  of  the  uterus  of  infected  heifers  and  cows 
harbors  the  Bacillus  abortus.     The  contents  of  the  uterus,  such 


r 

'   -~-~~v 

'  irtiTtflMi 

~ 

wBKBm' 

Sttni 

ifefa,  frf)v.,.,ri,^ajP 

,. 

Fig.   68. — Heifer,   thin  and  in  poor  condition,  though  not  affected  with  tuberculosis. 
(Courtesy  of  M.  H.  Reynolds.) 

as  the  foetus,  foetal  membranes,  and  the  fluids,  are  all  virulent 
and  when  expelled  from  the  uterus  become  vehicles  by  which  the 
disease  spreads.  The  discharge  from  the  uterus  following  abor- 
tion contains  myriads  of  bacilli  (germs)  which  may  be  carried 
to  various  parts  of  the  stable  by  aid  of  the  surface  drainage ; 
attendants  may  carry  the  infection  on  their  boots  or  on  the  milk- 
ing utensils  which  are  at  times  carelessly  handled.  The  bull 
is  undoubtedly  a  frequent  carrier  of  the  infection,  especially 
where  several  breeders  use  the  same  animal.  Infected  pregnant 
heifers  or  cows  introduced  into  healthy  herds  are  often  responsi- 
ble for  establishing  new  centers  of  the  disease  when  they  abort. 


196  COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE 

This  is  probably  the  chief  way  by  which  the  disease  disseminates, 
as  it  is  imposible  to  tell  by  a  physical  examination  whether  a 
cow  is  diseased  or  not  Milk  from  aborting  cows  may  be  a 
carrier  of  the  infection. 

Natural  Mode  of  Infection. — The  route  by  which  the  germ 
gains  entrance  to  the  animal  body  is  a  debatable  question.  Some 
authors  hold  that  the  open  cervical  canal  at  the  time  of  oestrum  is 
the  chief  avenue  of  infection,  being  introduced  into  the  cervix 
and  uterus  at  the  time  of  copulation  (breeding).  ]STo  doubt  the 
bull  is  responsible  for  the  transmission  of  the  disease  in  a  great 
many  cases,  especially  is  this  true  in  herds  where  only  one  bull  is 
used,  he  being  allowed  to  serve  both  diseased  and  healthy  cows. 
In  abortion  occurring  among  range  cattle,  the  bull  is  probably 
responsible  for  carrying  the  infection  from  one  cow  to  another, 
principally  at  the  time  of  breeding.  The  digestive  tube  un- 
doubtedly acts  as  one  of  the  chief  channels  of  entrance,  the  infec- 
tion being  obtained  from  contaminated  feedstuff's,  including 
pastures  where  diseased  animals  are  allowed  to  graze.  Artifi- 
cially the  disease  has  been  produced  by  injecting  virulent  abor- 
tion bacilli  into  the  veins  and  under  the  skin.  It  has  been  produced 
by  feeding  infected  material.  Abortion  has  also  been  produced 
by  placing  virulent  material  in  the  vagina  of  pregnant  cows. 

Symptoms. — The  period  of  incubation  in  infectious  abortion 
varies  widely.  In  producing  the  disease  experimentally  certain 
workers  have  determined  the  average  period  of  incubation  to  be 
approximately  130  days.  The  premonitory  symptoms  when 
noticed  consist  of  doughy  swellings  of  the  udder,  and  vulva, 
followed  by  a  mucus-like  odorless  discharge  from  the  vagina. 
The  discharge  may  at  times  be  streaked  with  blood,  relaxation 
of  the  sacro-sciatic  ligaments,  restlessness  and  stamping  of  the 
hind  feet.  These  symptoms  usually  appear  one  or  two  days 
before  the  abortion  occurs.  Occasionally  heifers  have  been  ob- 
served to  make  bag  and  even  lactate  at  the  fifth  month  of  gesta- 
tion, the  abortion  not  taking  place  until  the  seventh  month  or 
in  its  membranes,  but  when  the  abortion  occurs  after  the  fifth 
and  sixth  months  of  gestation  it  is  not  always  indicative  of  abor- 
tion. Cows  will  be  observed  to  abort  suddenly  without  mani- 
festing premonitory  symptoms.     When  heifers  or  cows  abort  in 


DIAGNOSIS  197 

the  early  stages  of  pregnancy  the  foetus  will  be  expelled  enclosed 
in  its  membranes,  but  when  the  abortion  occurs  after  the  fifth 
month  of  gestation  the  membranes  (afterbirth)  are  usually 
retained.  The  large  percentage  of  abortions  take  place  between 
the  fifth  and  seventh  months  of  pregnancy,  although  abortion 
may  occur  any  time  during  the  period  of  gestation.  Great  ex- 
citement may  be  noticed  in  heifers  following  an  abortion  and  at 
times  will  show  all  the  signs  of  the  heat  period.  The  discharge 
from  the  uterus  and  vagina,  following  abortion,  continues  for 
two  or  more  weeks,  and  may  continue  longer  when  the  inflam- 
mation of  the  lining  of  the  uterus  becomes  severe.  The  dis- 
charge is  of  a  dirty,  yellowish  gray  color,  tenacious  in  character, 
and  accumulates  on  the  tail  and  other  parts  to  which  it  may  come 
in  contact.  The  appetite  is  impaired  but  gradually  improves 
as  they  recover  from  the  effects  of  the  abortion.  The  milk  flow 
is  slight  but  increases  gradually  as  the  animal  recovers.  The 
foetus  is,  as  a  rule,  born  dead  or  if  alive  is  weak  and  undersized 
and  dies  within  a  few  days  with  symptoms  of  diarrhoea  or  re- 
mains in  a  stunted  condition.  Cases  in  which  the  foetus  has  be- 
come mummified  occur  in  infectious  abortion.  Such  cases  are, 
however,  rare.  In  a  number  of  cases,  cows  that  have  appar- 
ently recovered  from  the  effects  of  the  disease  fail  to  conceive 
though  served  by  the  bull  numerous  times  before  becoming  im- 
pregnated, or  may  never  again  get  with  calf  (non-breeders). 

Sterility  in  the  greatest  percentage  of  cases  is  probably 
due  to  pyometra  (pus  in  the  uterus),  the  result  of  retained 
placenta  or  afterbirth.  In  other  cases  the  ovaries  undergo  cystic 
degeneration,  which,  if  extensive,  often  causes  the  cow  to  be 
constantly  bulling.  Cases  of  this  type  are,  as  a  rule,  non- 
breeders.  Sterility  is  one  of  the  chief  characteristics  of 
infectious  abortion. 

Diagnosis. — In  a  herd  where  several  calves  have  been 
aborted  in  an  immature  condition,  and  especially  if  the  aborting 
animals  be  heifers,  one  is  usually  justified  in  regarding  the 
condition  as  infectious.  The  history,  of  course,  should  be  taken 
into  consideration.  Where  infectious  abortion  cannot  be  diag- 
nosed clinically,  the  following  methods  of  diagnosis  have  been 
recommended:  (1)  Bacteriologic.      (2)  Serologic. 


198  COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE 

Bacteriologic  Diagnosis. — Microscopically  best  results  may 
be  obtained  by  examining  smears  prepared  from  the  stomach  and 
intestines  of  the  foetus  soon  after  abortion.  If  small  cocco- 
baeilli  are  present  in  large  numbers,  one  is  quite  safe  in  consid- 
ering them  as  abortion  bacilli.  Cultures  made  from  the  stom- 
ach of  the  foetus  give,  in  a  large  percentage  of  positive  cases, 
cultures  of  Bacillus  abortus. 

Serologic  Diagnosis. — The  success  of  serum  diagnosis  in 
other  diseases  induced  the  various  workers  in  veterinary  pathol- 
ogy and  bacteriology  to  apply  the  complement-fixation  and  ag- 
glutination tests  to  infectious  abortion.  The  serum  method  of 
diagnosis  is  quite  accurate  in  determining  the  presence  of  infec- 
tious abortion.  All  heifers  or  cows  affected  with  abortion  form 
certain  substances  in  their  blood  known  as  anti-bodies.  By  the 
aid  of  the  complement-fixation  or  agglutination  tests  the  greater 
percentage  of  these  cases  can  be  determined.  Some  cows  may 
give  positive  reactions  to  the  serum  tests,  yet  not  abort.  The 
indication,  however,  is  that  they  are  or  have  been  infected  with 
the  Bacillus  abortus.  Positive  reactions  in  herds  where  infec- 
tious abortion  is  unknown  are  rare.  By  the  aid  of  the  serum 
tests  one  can  determine  the  extent  of  the  disease  in  a  herd. 

Prevention  and  Treatment. — As  no  drugs  or  medicinal 
agents  have  thus  far  been  discovered  for  the  cure  of  this  dis- 
ease the  treatment  necessarily  becomes  preventive.  In  herds 
where  abortion  has  recently  appeared  it  is  advisable  to  practice 
isolation  of  the  aborting  cows,  not  allowing  them  to  come  in  con- 
tact with  healthy  cattle  until  all  signs  of  disease  have  disap- 
peared. In  cases  of  retained  afterbirth,  the  same  should  be 
removed  by  the  hand  within  24  to  48  hours  after  the  abortion. 
If  the  afterbirth  does  not  come  away  readily  it  should  not  be 
forcibly  removed  but  the  uterus  should  be  irrigated  once  daily 
with  a  warm  disinfectant  solution.  The  irrigation  of  the  vagina 
and  uterus  can  best  be  done  by  using  a  soft  rubber  tube,  one 
end  of  which  is  introduced  into  the  vagina  with  a  funnel  in  the 
outer  elevated  end.  About  one  gallon  of  one-fourth  or  one-half 
per  cent  solution  of  creolin,  lysol,  liquor  cresolis,  or  a  solution 
of  potassium  permanganate   (1   to  1000   solution)    should  be 


MEDICINAL  TREATMENT  199 

introduced  into  the  womb.  This  procedure  should  be  practiced 
once  a  day  for  10  days.  After  this,  twice  a  week  as  long  as  the 
discharge  continues.  Cows  that  have  aborted  should  not  be 
bred  again  within  a  period  of  three  or  four  months  after  the 
abortion  occurred.  The  foetus  and  the  afterbirth  of  aborting 
cows  contain  innumerable  bacteria,  hence  they  should  be  burned 
or  deeply  buried.  Unless  this  precaution  is  taken  the  infection 
will  be  carried  from  one  place  to  another.  Lime  should  be 
placed  in  the  gutters  to  prevent  the  bacteria  from  spreading  by 
surface  drainage.  Barns  or  stables  that  become  infected  should 
be  thoroughly  disinfected.  The  cattle  should  be  removed  and 
the  barn  left  empty  for  four  or  five  days.  All  bedding  and 
litter  should  be  removed  and  the  walls  and  floors  should  be 
scrubbed  and  then  sprayed  with  a  strong  disinfectant  solution. 
One  of  the  best  disinfectants  for  stables  is  lime  wash.  To 
improve  the  germicidal  properties  of  lime  one  may  add  six 
ounces  of  chloride  of  lime  to  every  gallon  of  the  lime  wash. 
This  mixture  may  best  be  applied  by  using  a  spray  pump  so  that 
the  disinfectant  may  be  forced  into  the  cracks  and  crevices. 

The  bull  may  be  prevented  from  carrying  the  infection  by 
disinfecting  the  penis  and  sheath  before  and  after  each  service. 
The  long  hair  around  the  opening  of  the  sheath  should  be 
clipped  and  the  surrounding  parts  bathed  with  a  mild  anti- 
septic solution. 

In  disinfecting  the  bull  a  small  rubber  hose  will  be  found 
quite  serviceable,  one  end  of  which  is  inserted  into  the  sheath 
and  held  together  by  the  hand  so  that  the  fluid  will  not  imme- 
diately escape.  In  the  other  end  of  the  hose  a  funnel  is  inserted 
into  which  the  antiseptic  solution  is  poured.  In  this  way  the 
sheath  pouch  may  be  easily  irrigated.  Mild  antiseptic  solutions 
should  be  used  for  this  purpose.  Infectious  abortion  may  be  sup- 
pressed by  maintaining  strict  preventive  measures. 

Medicinal  Treatment. — Many  drugs  have  been  used  in  the 
treatment  of  abortion  but  none  have  proved  to  be  of  much  value. 
Certain  drugs  have  been  given  credit  for  preventing  abortion 
in  given  herds,  yet,  no  doubt,  the  same  results  would  have  been 
obtained  had  no  medicine  been  used.     Carbolic  acid  and  meth- 


200  COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE 

ylene  blue  have  been  used  extensively  in  the  treatment  of  abor- 
tion.  Good  results  reported  from  the  use  of  these  drugs  is 
probably  due  to  the  increased  resistance  or  immunity  to  the 
disease  which  occurs  after  one  or  two  abortions  rather  than  the 
effects  of  the  remedies  themselves. 

Immunization. — Cows  after  aborting  once  or  twice  become 
more  resistant  to  the  disease  and  carry  the  calf  to  the  normal 
termination  of  pregnancy.  In  this  way  the  disease  will  gradu- 
ally exhaust  itself,  providing  susceptible  animals  are  not  added  to 
the  herd.  Because  of  the  tendency  toward  natural  immunity  the 
problem  of  producing  an  artificial  immunity  presented  itself. 
Living  and  dead  cultures  of  abortion  bacilli  are  being  used  in  an 
attempt  to  produce  artificial  immunity  in  young  heifers. 

MILK  FEVER   (PARTURIENT  PARESIS ) 

This  is  a  disease  peculiar  to  the  cow,  occurring  at  or  near 
the  time  of  calving.  This  disease  as  a  rule  confines  itself  almost 
entirely  to  the  heavy  milking  breeds.  Generally  cows  are 
afflicted  at  the  third  to  fifth  birth,  although  it  may  occur  in 
cows  bearing  their  first  calf.  Most  cases  occur  during  hot 
weather,  and  during  rapid  changes  of  weather.  It  may  appear 
also  during  the  coldest  weather.  Milk  fever  usually  sets  in  from 
24  to  48  hours  after  birth  of  the  calf,  the  maximum  interval 
being  several  days.  It  rarely  occurs  at  the  time  of  birth.  Iso- 
lated cases  have  been  observed  just  before  calving,  but  never 
before  the  secretion  of  milk  had  begun. 

Predisposing  Causes. — Confinement  in  the  stall  predisposes 
to  milk  fever,  partly  because  of  lack  of  exercise,  which  is  very 
essential  in  cows  that  are  highly  fed,  and  partly  because  of  the 
air  being  hotter  and  at  times  impure. 

Constipation  may  become  an  accessory  cause  by  increasing 
the  volume  and  density  of  the  blood  with  certain  material  that 
should  pass  off  by  the  bowels. 

Mature  age  is  a  strong  predisposing  cause.  The  disease 
seldom,  if  ever,  occurs  with  the  first  parturition  and  rarely  with 
the  second.  It  appears  with  the  third,  fourth,  or  fifth  birth, 
when  the  cow  has  attained  her  normal  growth  and  is  converging 
all  of  her  energies  to  the  production  of  milk. 


SYMPTOMS  201 

Calving  is  the  chief  predisposing  factor.  The  manner  in 
which  it  acts  as  an  accessory  has  not  been  definitely  determined, 
but  is  thought  to  be  due  to  alteration  in  blood  supply.  It  is 
after  easy  calving  when  there  has  been  little  expenditure  of 
muscular  or  nervous  energy  that  milk  fever  appears.  Difficult 
parturitions  which,  as  a  rule,  occur  at  the  time  of  the  first  or 
second  birth  are  rarely  connected  with  parturient  paralysis. 

Symptoms. — Milk  fever  usually  begins  with  signs  of  rest- 
lessness and  occasionally  signs  of  brain  irritation  may  be 
observed  in  the  beginning.  After  these  initial  stages,  the  char- 
acteristic signs  of  depression  and  paralysis  appear  (Figs.  69  and 
70).  First,  the  cow  shows  a.  weakness  in  the  use  of  her  hind 
parts;  and  steps  unsteadily  or  staggers  when  attempting  to 
move  or  walk,  may  fall  and  struggle  to  rise  again.  The  cow  no 
longer  notices  her  calf  or  her  feed.  The  weakness  increases 
and  the  cow  lies  down  or  falls  and  is  unable  to  regain  her  feet. 
The  animal's  temperature,  which  becomes  sub-normal,  may  be 
slightly  raised  at  this  period.  The  cow  may  lie  on  her  breast- 
bone with  her  feet  beneath  the  body,  and  her  head  turned 
round  with  the  nose  resting  on  the  right  or  left,  usually  the 
left  flank.  In  this  position  the  cow  appears  to  be  asleep.  In 
cases  of  extreme  feebleness,  the  cow  may  lie  on  her  side  with  all 
four  legs  stretched  out.  If  an  attempt  is  made  to  lift  the  head, 
it  falls  back  powerless  into  its  old  position.  The  eyes  appear 
glazed,  and  the  pupils  are  widely  dilated.  The  upper  eyelid 
droops  over  the  eyeball  and  is  not  moved  when  the  eyeball  is 
touched  with  the  finger.  At  this  time  unconsciousness  is  usually 
complete.  The  tongue  hangs  loosely  from  the  mouth,  and  breath- 
ing is  performed  with  snoring,  groaning,  and  rattling  noises 
accompanied  with  great  distention  of  the  nostrils.  The  muscles 
of  the  bowels  become  paralyzed,  causing  obstinate  constipation 
and  at  times  bloating.  This  is  usually  accompanied  by  paralysis 
of  the  bladder  muscles  causing  cessation  of  urination.  If  either 
or  both  of  these  organs  continue  to  function,  a  favorable  prog- 
nosis can  usually  be  given.  The  temperature  which  may  be 
raised  at  first  becomes  sub-normal.  The  pulse  and  heart-beats  are 
quickened.  The  body  temperature  is  unevenly  distributed,  the 
feet,  ears,  and  horns  being  exceptionally  cold  to  the  touch. 


202 


COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE 


Course. — The  duration  of  the  disease  is  brief  and  the  results 
can  usually  be  decided  within  a  few  hours. 

Fig.  69. 


^i 

^fSfi^r         I  lu 

>4 

>t»           S^  ' 

'■'*"     ■'. 

m  - 

QL 

l  n 

&k 

Fig.  70. 

Fig.  69. — Cow,  showing  symptoms  of  milk  fever  in  the  first  stage.     (Courtesy  of  M. 
Reynolds.) 

Fro.   70. — An  advanced  case  of  milk  fever. 


INJECTING  UDDER  WITH  ATMOSPHERIC  AIR  203 

Preventive  Treatment. — Heavy  milking  cows  should  be  kept 
on  a  spare  diet  at  least  one  week  before  calving  and  for  four 
to  five  days  after  calving.  Free  access  to  salt  and  water  are 
beneficial,  as  they  tend  to  keep  the  bowels  in  good  condition. 
One  to  one  and  one-half  pounds  of  epsom  salts  may  be  admin- 
istered twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  before  calving.  In  case  this 
procedure  is  neglected,  salts  should  be  given  soon  after  the  cow 
calves  and  the  labor  pains  have  ceased.  Daily  exercise  is  of 
much  importance.     Rich  feeds  should  be  avoided. 

Another  preventive  measure  consists  of  allowing  the  suscepti- 
ble cow  to  retain  in  the  udder  for  twenty-four  hours  following 
parturition  all  the  milk  except  the  quantity  which  is  required 
by  the  calf,  which  amount  should  be  taken,  if  possible,  part  from 
each  quarter. 

Air  Treatment. — The  treatment  of  milk  fever  by  the  injec- 
tion of  sterile  atmospheric  air  into  the  udder  has  proved  to  be 
simple,  practicable,  and  highly  efficacious  and  results  in  no  harm 
to  the  udder  when  properly  performed.  If  antiseptic  precau- 
tions are  not  observed  and  the  injections  performed  in  a  careless 
way,  disease-producing  bacteria  will  often  be  introduced  into  the 
udder,  causing  mammitis  (caked  bag),  a  condition  that  may  re- 
sult in  the  loss  of  one  or  more  quarters  of  the  bag  and  at  times  in 
death.  The  method  of  injecting  filtered  air  into  the  udder  is  a 
comparatively  easy  procedure,  requiring  but  little  time,  and  is 
readily  accomplished  by  the  use  of  milk  fever  apparatus.  A 
milk  fever  apparatus  is  inexpensive  and  if  cared  for  carefully 
will  last  for  years. 

Technique  for  Injecting  the  Udder  with  Filtered  Atmos- 
pheric Air. — The  teats  and  udder  should  be  washed  with  soap 
and  water,  and  then  carefully  disinfected  with  a  three  to  five  per 
cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  lysol,  creolin,  or  some  other  good 
antiseptic.  A  clean  towel  or  sheet  should  then  be  placed  under 
the  udderto  prevent  the  teats  coming  in  contact  with  dirt  or 
filth.  The  hands  of  the  operator  should  be  thoroughly  washed 
with  soap  and  water.  The  milking  tube  with  the  lower  piece  of 
hose  of  the  milk  fever  apparatus  should  be  boiled  fifteen  to 
twenty  minutes  before  using.     The  milking  tube  is  then  inserted 


204  COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE 

into  the  opening  of  the  teat  and  air  is  pumped  into  the  quarter 
until  it  is  sufficiently  distended.  Careful  massage  of  the  udder 
will  allow  the  air  to  gain  access  to  the  innermost  tubules.  After 
the  quarter  is  well  distended,  the  tube  is  removed.  The  same 
treatment  is  applied  to  the  other  three  teats  until  the  udder  is 
satisfactorily  distended.  In  certain  cases  it  will  be  found  neces- 
sary to  apply  tape  to  the  ends  of  the  teats  in  order  to  keep  the 
air  from  escaping.  The  pieces  of  tape  should  be  removed  within 
one  or  two  hours  so  as  to  prevent  sloughing.  In  case  the  air 
becomes  absorbed^  and  no  improvement  is  noticed  within  four  or 
five  hours,  the  treatment  should  be  repeated,  care  being  taken  to 
observe  the  same  antiseptic  precautions  as  at  first.  The  air  may 
be  left  in  the  udder  for  twenty-four  hours  and  when  recovery 
is  certain,  it  should  be  gradually  milked  out.  The  affected  cow 
should  not  be  allowed  to  lie  on  her  side  but  kept  up  on  the  breast 
bone  (sternum)  so  as  to  prevent  the  development  of  pneumonia. 
Simple  cases  of  milk  fever,  especially  in  the  beginning,  may 
be  successfully  treated  by  the  layman  provided  he  observes 
strict  antiseptic  measures.  Skilled  veterinarians  should  be  em- 
ployed, however,  as  they  will  obtain  more  satisfactory  results. 
Especially  is  this  true  in  the  treatment  of  advanced  and  com- 
plicated cases. 

FOOT  AND  MOUTH  DISEASE 

This  disease  is  also  known  as  epizootic  aphtha,  aphthous 
fever,  infectious  aphtha,  and  may  be  defined  as  an  acute,  highly 
contagious  disease,  characterized  by  the  eruption  of  vesicles  or 
blisters  in  the  mouth,  around  the  coronary  bands  of  the  feet 
and  between  the  toes.  Foot  and  mouth  disease  does  not  confine 
its  ravages  among  cattle  but  attacks  almost  as  readily  all  other 
cloven-hoofed  animals.  Horses,  dogs,  cats,  and  poultry  at  times 
become  infected  and  cases  have  been  reported  wherein  man  was 
the  victim.  Foot  and  mouth  disease  is  common  in  European 
countries,  where  it  produces  great  losses.  The  actual  mortality 
produced  is  low.  However,  seriou3  losses  occur  from  the 
diminution  of  the  milk  secretion  and  the  loss  of  flesh.  Foot  and 
mouth  disease  spreads  very  rapidly  and  infects  a  large  number 


SYMPTOMS  OF  FOOT  AND  MOUTH  DISEASE  205 

of  animals  in  a  short  period  of  time.  Very  little  immunity  is 
produced  by  foot  and  mouth  disease,  repeated  attacks  having 
been  known  to  occur  in  the  same  animals. 

Foot  and  mouth  disease  has  appeared  in  the  United  States 
on  six  different  occasions.  The  recent  outbreak  of  1914  was 
by  far  the  most  serious  as  well  as  the  most  extensive  that  has 
ever  occurred  in  this  country.  All  of  the  previous  outbreaks 
were  quickly  and  successfully  eradicated. 

Cause. — The  causative  factor  of  foot  and  mouth  disease  has 
never  been  isolated  or  identified,  although  numerous  attempts 
have  been  made  to  discover  the  specific  organism.  The  virus  -r 
the  disease-producing  material  may  be  found  in  the  blisters  on 
the  mouth,  feet,  udder  and  in  the  saliva,  milk  and  various  secre- 
tions and  excretions,  and  in  the  blood,  during  the  time  when  the 
temperature  is  high.  Animals  may  become  infected  directly  by 
licking,  and  in  calves  by  sucking,  or  indirectly  by  infected  hay, 
manure,  drinking  troughs,  railway  cars,  stock-yards,  barn-yards, 
and  pastures.  The  time  elapsing  between  the  exposure  of  an 
animal  to  infection  and  the  development  of  the  disease  in  that 
animal  varies  usually  from  three  to  six  days.  The  disease  may 
appear  in  twenty-four  hours,  again  in  exceptional  cases,  not  for 
eighteen  days  or  longer. 

Symptoms. — In  foot  and  mouth  disease  the  early  symptoms 
consist  of  spells  of  shivering  or  chilling,  quickly  followed  by 
fever,  causing  the  body  to  become  exceedingly  warm.  The  body 
temperature  may  be  as  high  as  105  or  106  degrees  F.  These 
symptoms  do  not  always  occur,  or  may  be  in  so  mild  a  form  as  to 
escape  notice.  Following  this  in  one  or  two  days,  small  vesicles 
or  blisters  about  the  size  of  a  pea  will  make  their  appearance 
upon  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth  and  tongue  or  on  the 
lips  or  the  margin  of  the  dental  pad.  These  small  blisters  are 
filled  with  a  yellowish  watery  fluid  and  become  more  extensive 
as  the  disease  progresses.  Shortly  after  the  eruptions  have 
appeared  in  the  mouth  (Fig.  71),  it  will  be  noticed  that  there  is 
considerable  swelling  and  redness  shown  about  the  feet  in  the 
region  of  the  coronet  and  between  the  toes.     The  formation  of 


206  COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE 

vesicles  or  blisters  soon  appears  upon  the  swollen  regions  of  the 
foot.  In  milch  cows  the  udder  and  especially  the  teats  become 
affected  with  vesicles  or  blisters.  As  the  disease  advances  the 
affected  animal  evidences  considerable  pain  when  attempting  to 
eat  and  in  some  cases  on  account  of  great  pain  will  refuse  "feed 
of  all  kinds.  Salivation  becomes  excessive  and  the  animal 
opens  and  closes  its  mouth  with  a  characteristic  smacking  sound. 
The  saliva  is  ropy  and  tenacious  and  hangs  suspended  from  the 
lips.  The  vesicles  which  are  small  at  first  become  extended  and 
rupture  soon  after  their  appearance,  leaving  reddened  painful 
spots  or  sores  both  within  the  mouth  and  upon  the  feet.  Similar 
spots  or  erosions  will  occur  on  the  teats  of  milch  cows.  All 
four  feet  of  an  animal  may  become  affected  at  the  same  time. 
Again  one  or  more  of  the  feet  may  escape  the  infection  and 
remain  normal  throughout  the  course  of  the  disease.  The 
affected  feet  become  very  sore  and  painful,  causing  the  animal  to 
lie  down  a  great  deal.  The  disease  when  assuming  a  mild  form 
usually  runs  its  course  in  approximately  thirty  days.  In  case  of 
milch  cows  the  return  of  the  secretion  of  milk  is  greatly  retarded. 
In  the  more  destructive  form  of  the  disease  several  months  or  a 
year  may  be  required  for  an  animal  to  recover. 

Diagnosis. — The  foot  and  mouth  disease  is  not  difficult  to 
recognize  when  it  is  known  to  exist  in  the  vicinity.  The  services 
of  experts,  however,  are  required  in  order  to  recognize  or  diag- 
nose the  initial  outbreaks.  By  inoculating  calves  with  the 
virus  from  infected  animals,  the  clinical  diagnosis  can  be 
promptly  and  positively  substantiated. 

Diseases  That  May  Be  Confused  with  Foot  and  Mouth. — 
After  the  blisters  or  vesicles  in  foot  and  mouth  disease  rupture 
the  disease  becomes  more  difficult  to  recognize,  as  other  diseases 
of  a  less  contagious  nature  have  a  similar  appearance.  Cow- 
pox  may  at  times  be  confused  with  foot  and  mouth  disease,  but 
in  cow-pox  the  eruptions  of  the  pocks  which  become  pustules 
have  well-marked  and  defined  stages.  The  eruptions  in  foot 
and  mouth  disease  never  become  more  than  a  vesicle. 

Necrotic  Stomatitis  (Sore  Mouth  Caused  by  Bacteria). — 
This  disease  may  be  differentiated  from  foot  and  mouth  disease 


MYCOTIC  STOMATITIS  207 

by  the  fact  that  blisters  do  not  occur  in  necrotic  stomatitis  and 
the  ulcerated  patches  that  appear  in  the  beginning  of  the  dis- 
ease, principally  involving  the  mouth  and  tongue,  become  cov- 
ered with  a  yellowish,  cheesy-like  material.  Calves  are  more  apt 
to  become  affected  with  sore  mouth  than  are  adult  cattle.  Foot 
and  mouth  disease  spreads  more  rapidly  through  a  herd  than 
does  necrotic  stomatitis  and  affects  cattle  of  all  ages,  also  sheep 
and  swine. 

'  j.  '  Ergotism  (poison  from  eating  ergot)  may  be  distinguished 
from  foot  and  mouth  disease  in  that  the  lesions  occurring  in 


Fig.  71. — A  cow  affected  with  foot  and  mouth  disease.     Note  the  accumulation  of  ealiva 
about  the  lips.     (From  report  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.) 

ergotism  are  confined  to  the  ears,  tail,  and  legs,  usually  below 
trie  knees  or  hocks.  Vesicles  or  blisters  do  not  occur  in  ergot 
poisoning,  the  lesions  instead  consisting  of  a  dry-sloughing 
process.  The  tips  of  the  ears  will  become  dry  and  slough  off. 
The  tail  may  likewise  become  affected.  The  ankles  swell  con- 
siderably and  later  become  circumscribed  with  a  deep  crack  or 
fissure  entirely  surrounding  the  leg  as  a  result  of  the  sloughing. 
Mycotic  stomatitis  (inflammation  of  the  mouth  caused  by 
molds  or  fungi)  is  characterized  by  the  formation  of  a  croupous 
membrane  or  portions  of  the  mucous  lining  of  the  mouth  which 


208  COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE 

peels  off,  leaving  a  raw  surface.  The  skin  between  the  toes  may 
at  times  become  inflamed.  The  absence  of  vesicles  on  the  udder 
and  teats  as  well  as  other  parts  of  the  body  together  with  the 
slowness  in  which  the  infection  spreads  in  a  herd  aids  in  dif- 
ferentiating this  affection  from  foot  and  mouth  disease.  Mycotic 
stomatitis  appears  usually  in  late  summer  or  early  fall  and 
attacks  from  ten  to  fifty  per  cent  of  the  animals  in  a  herd. 

Foul  Foot,  (Foot  Rot). — Foul  foot  is  not  an  infectious 
disease,  but  during  warm  wet  seasons  a  number  of  cattle  may 
become  affected  in  a  certain  district,  giving  rise  to  the  sus- 
picion on  the  part  of  some  that  it  may  be  a  disease  of  a  con- 
tagious nature.  Foul  foot,  as  the  name  implies,  is  a  disease 
of  the  feet  only  and  the  cause  may  be  easily  traced  to  filthy 
stalls  and  badly  drained  grounds. 

Prevention  of  Foot  and  Mouth  Disease. — The  highly  infec- 
tious nature  of  the  disease  and  the  easy  manner  of  its  dissemina- 
tion require  that  rigid  preventive  measures  be  adopted  to  prevent 
its  spread.  Healthy  cattle  should  be  guarded  carefully  so  as  to 
prevent  them  being  exposed  to  the  infection.  In  a  community 
where  an  outbreak  occurs  owners  should  exercise  every  pre- 
caution in  preventing  other  animals,  such  as  dogs,  cats,  and 
poultry,  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  diseased  animals, 
as  they  furnish  excellent  means  for  disseminating  the  causative 
factor.  The  carcasses  of  affected  animals  must  be  destroyed, 
preferably  by  burning  or  by  burying  them  in  a  hole  eight  or  ten 
feet  deep  and  covering  them  with  air-slaked  lime,  so  as  to 
prevent  earthworms  and  similar  agents  from  carrying  the  virus 
to  the  surface.  Infected  stables  should  be  thoroughly  disin- 
fected with  one  of  the  following  disinfectants:  (1)  a  five  per 
cent  solution  of  pure  carbolic  acid.  (2)  Chloride  of  lime,  U. 
S.  P.,  one  pound  to  three  gallons  of  water.  (3)  Formaldehyde, 
one  quart  forty  per  cent  solution  to  five  gallons  of  water.  (4) 
The  application  of  lime  wash  to  which  is  added  chloride  of  lime 
in  the  ratio  of  six  ounces  of  chloride  of  lime  to  each  gallon  of 
the  lime  wash  is  quite  efficient. 

All  stable  utensils  must  be  thoroughly  cleansed  and  disin- 
fected with  any  of  the  above-named  antiseptics.  All  manure 
should  be  burned  or  disinfected.      The  stables  should  not  be 


LUMPY  JAW  (ACTINOMYCOSIS)  209 

reoccupied  within  a  period  of  sixty  days  following  disinfection. 
The  methods  of  eradication  of  foot  and  mouth  disease  as  prac- 
ticed by  the  United  States  Government  consist  of  rigid  quaran- 
tine, thorough  disinfection  and  the  purchasing  and  slaughtering 
of  affected  and  exposed  animals  after  proper  appraisement. 

LUMPY  JAW  (ACTINO-MYCOSIS) 

This  is  a  specific  chronic  infectious  disease  caused  by  a 
certain  fungus  (actinomyees)  and  characterized  by  the  forma- 
tion of  tumorous  masses  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  more  par- 
ticularly the  head.  The  history  of  this  fungus  is  not  known, 
but  it  is  thought  that  it  passes  a  part  of  its  life  cycle  on  certain 
grasses.  The  matured  fungus  has  the  appearance  of  a  rosette 
and  is  commonly  called  "  ray  fungus." 

Distribution  and  Extent. — Actino-mycosis  or  lumpy  jaw  is 
quite  prevalent  in  the  United  States.  The  extent  of  the  disease 
varies  in  the  different  states.  According  to  the  twenty-fourth 
annual  report  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  there  were 
slaughtered  in  establishments  having  federal  inspection,  7,621,- 
717  cattle,  of  which  22,742  were  found  to  be  affected  with 
lumpy  jaw.  The  actual  percentage  is  even  greater,  for  numer- 
ous animals  affected  with  this  disease  are  slaughtered  where 
there  is  no  official  inspection  maintained. 

Source  of  the  Fungus — The  fungus  which  causes  the  dis- 
ease is  probably  most  frequently  obtained  from  vegetation, 
especially  wild  rye,  barley,  oats  and  other  grains.  Infection  is 
thought  to  occur  most  often  in  animals  fed  on  dry  feed  such 
as  fodder,  straw,  or  hay.  It  is  questionable  as  to  whether  the 
disease  may  be  transmitted  directly  from  one  animal  to  another, 
although  certain  instances  have  been  recorded  wherein  the  infec- 
tion apparently  spread  by  actual  contact. 

The  causative  fungus  may  gain  entrance  to  the  animal  body 
by  way  of  the  digestive  tract,  the  respiratory  tract  or  through 
the  skin.  The  digestive  tract  is  the  most  frequent  channel  of 
entrance  in  cattle.  Wounds  of  mucous  lining  of  the  mouth, 
diseased  teeth,  or  the  shedding  of  milk  teeth,  provide  an  en- 
trance for  the  causative  fungus.  The  upper  surface  of  the 
tongue,  which  is  often  injured  by  rough  feeds,  frequently  affords 
14 


210  COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE 

an  entrance  for  the  ray  fungus.  When  the  disease  affects 
the  tongue  it  is  commonly  known  as  "  wooden  tongue."  Wounds 
of  the  skin  resulting  from  rubbing  on  stanchions  and  feed 
boxes  may  be  a  source  of  infection  in  some  instances.  Infection 
by  way  of  air  passages  is  not  of  common  occurrence. 

Location  of  the  Disease. — The  disease  may  be  located  both 
externally  and  internally.  The  fungus  may  invade  and  produce 
the  disease  in  any  tissue.  It  is  most  often  found  affecting  the 
soft  tissues  and  bones  of  the  lower  and  upper  jaw.  Internally 
it  may  attack  the  tongue,  pharynx,  or  larynx.  It  may  also  affect 
the  lungs  and  more  rarely  the  digestive  tract;  occasionally  the 
udder  is  attacked.  It  is  usually  localized,  and  rarely  if  ever 
becomes  generalized.  When  affecting  the  soft  tissue  of  the  head 
the  disease  produces  rather  hard,  firm  swellings  (abscesses) 
(Fig.  72),  which  vary  in  size,  surrounded  by  a  thick  dense  cap- 
sule. The  abscesses  tend  to  rupture  finally  and  discharge  a 
thick  creamy  pus.  The  pus  contains  small  yellow  bodies, 
which  are  commonly  known  as  "  sulphur  granules."  These 
are  the  "  ray  fungi."  After  the  abscess  has  ruptured,  the  cavity 
does  not  disappear  but  is  soon  filled  with  fungus-like  masses 
which  protrude  outward  through  the  opening.  In  some  in- 
stances the  abscesses  will  appear  in  the  form  of  a  chain,  extend- 
ing along  the  jaw  and  upper  portion  of  the  neck.  When  the 
abscesses  form  inside  the  throat,  they  seriously  interfere  with 
swallowing  and  respiration.  Actino-mycosis  of  the  bone  is  of 
common  occurrence  and  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 
serious  forms  of  the  disease.  The  bone  becomes  disintegrated 
and  pockets  or  cavities  are  formed.  As  the  diseased  process 
advances,  there  is  new  bone  tissue  formed,  causing  the  bone  to 
become  enlarged  and  have  a  honeycomb  appearance. 

The  disease  of  the  tongue,  "  wooden  tongue,"  is  also  a  very 
serious  form  of  the  disease,  as  it  interferes  with  the  movement 
of  this  important  organ  of  mastication.  The  course  of  the 
disease  is  quite  slow.  Emaciation  in  the  affected  animal  results 
when  mastication,  rumination,  or  breathing  is  affected.  The 
tongue  and  the  bones  of  the  jaws  may  become  so  badly  diseased 
that  death  will  result  from  starvation. 

Treatment. — When  affected  the  soft  structures  of  the  lower 


INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  UDDER 


211 


and  upper  jaw  may  be  satisfactorily  treated,  but  when  the 
bony  tissue  is  diseased  treatment  is  of  less  value.  Potassium 
iodide,  administered  in  the  form  of  a  drench  once  a  day  until 
symptoms  of  iodine  poisoning  occur,  has  proved  to  be  quite 
beneficial  in  the  treatment  of  this  disease.  Abscesses  located 
externally  in  the  region  of  the  head  and  neck  require  early 
attention  in  order  to  effect  a  cure.  Operations  of  this  kind  can 
only  be  undertaken  by  skilled  veterinarians. 


lumpy  jaw,  unthriftiness  due  to  the  mechanical  difficulty 
(.Courtesy  of  M.  H.  Reynolds.) 


// 

Mammitis 


INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  UDDER 

is  the  veterinarian's  name  for  inflammation  of 
the  udder.  Aggravated  cases  of  garget  may  at  times  terminate 
in  active  inflammation.  Mammitis  may  occur  also  directly  in 
connection  with  injuries,  such  as  blows  on  the  udder  with  clubs, 
horns,  or  feet,  or  from  nails  in  the  floor.  Over-feeding,  ex- 
posure to  extreme  changes  of  weather,  indigestion,  and  insuffi- 
cient stripping  of  the  udder  during  milking  may  also  cause 
the  udder  to  become  inflamed. 

Symptoms. — In  cases  of  mammitis  following  exposure,  the 
early  symptoms  noted  consist  of  spells  of  shivering.      The  tail, 


212  COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE 

ears,  and  limbs  become  cold  and  the  hair  in  general  is  erect. 
This  condition  is  soon  followed  by  fever  and  the  body  becomes 
unnaturally  warm.  The  muzzle  becomes  hot  and  dry,  the 
temperature  rises,  rapid  pulse,  excited  breathing,  impaired 
appetite,  cessation  of  rumination,  and  constipation.  The  udder 
swells  and  becomes  hard  in  one,  two,  three,  or  all  four  quarters 
and  the  yield  of  milk  is  greatly  lessened,  at  times  becoming 
entirely  suppressed  in  the  affected  quarter  or  quarters.  As 
the  inflammatory  process  extends,  the  udder  becomes  painfully 
tender,  causing  the  animal  to  straddle  with  its  hind  legs  when 
walking.  In  cases  where  the  supporting  tissue  or  framework  of 
the  udder  is  inflamed,  the  swelling  is  rounded  and  uniform  and 
pits  on  pressure.  In  cases  where  the  secreting  portion  of  the 
gland  becomes  inflamed,  the  swelling  is  more  localized  and 
appears  as  hard,  nodular  masses,  deep  in  the  gland.  In  all 
cases  the  milk  is  suppressed  and  replaced  by  a  watery  fluid 
wmich  is  at  times  streaked  with  blood  and  mixed  Avith  clots  of 
casein.  Later  it  becomes  thickened  and  is  usually  accompanied 
by  an  offensive  odor,  due  to  pus  formation. 

The  course  of  the  disease  varies,  some  cases  lasting  only  a 
few  days,  while  others  will  last  several  days  or  even  Aveeks  before 
the  inflammation  has  subsided  and  the  gland  restored  to  its 
normal  condition.  Many  cases  terminate  in  complete  recovery. 
Others  result  in  only  partial  recovery  with  arrested  secretion 
in  one  or  more  quarters.  When  this  occurs,  the  affected  portion 
shrinks  to  a  smaller  size.  In  quite  a  number  of  cases,  hard, 
fibrous  masses  result,  which  cause  permanent  induration  (hard- 
ening). In  other  cases  abscesses  (boils)  will  develop.  The 
abscess  may  empty  itself  on  the  external  surface  or  it  may 
break  into  the  milk  ducts  and  be  discharged  through  the  teats. 

Treatment. — Treatment  will  be  found  to  vary  in  accordance 
with  the  stages  of  the  disease. 

Internally,  laxatives  are  indicated.  Epsom  salts,  one  to 
two  pounds,  with  an  ounce  of  ginger  dissolved  in  a  quart  of 
water  and  administered  as  a  drench,  will  be  found  efficacious. 
After  the  purgative  action  has  ceased,  one  ounce  of  saltpeter 
may  be  given  once  a  day.  Local  treatment  consists  of  hot 
fomentations  and  gentle  but  frequent  massage.     Cloths  wrung 


COW-POX  213 

out  of  warm  water  should  be  applied  to  the  udder  for  au  hour 
or  two  at  a  time.  The  application  of  camphorated  vaseline  or 
lard  may  be  used  with  good  effect.  In  case  of  abscess  forma- 
tion early  lancing  is  recommended.  Frequent  milking  is  neces- 
sary in  order  to  get  the  best  results  and  the  affected  cow  should 
be  milked  at  least  five  or  six  times  a  day. 


This  is  a  condition  that  often  occurs  in  heavy  milkers  just 
before  or  after  calving.  The  udder  becomes  enlarged  and  is 
hot  and  tender.  At  times  a  doughy  swelling  will  be  noticed  to 
extend  from  the  udder  forward  along  the  lower  surface  of  the 
abdomen.  This  condition  is  physiological  and  the  congestion 
usually  disappears  within  a  few  days  after  the  secretion  of  milk 
begins.  Garget  becomes  aggravated  when  the  animal  is  allowed 
to  stand  in  a  draft  of  cold  air  or  when  compelled  to  lie  on 
unprotected  cold  cement  or  on  wet  floors.  Incomplete  milking 
is  probably  the  most  frequent  cause  of  garget  even  with  cows 
far  along  in  milk.  In  some  cases  doughy  swellings  will  occur 
on  the  surface  of  the  gland  and  the  milk  may  be  tinged  or 
streaked  with  blood  and  is  usually  stringy  and  clotted  when 
drawn.  Such  milk  is  unfit  for  food,  but  one  gargetty  quarter 
does  not  spoil  the  milk  of  the  remaining  three  quarters. 

Treatment. — The  affected  animal  should  be  placed  in  a  dry, 
clean,  and  well  Ventilated  stall  and  the  udder  lightly  massaged 
with  the  finger-tips.  The  application  of  hot  cloths  around  the 
affected  parts  aids  in  restoring  proper  circulation  and  in  this  way 
prevents  or  wards  off  inflammation.  The  application  of  turpen- 
tine and  lard,  or,  better  still,  camphorated  vaseline,  will  be 
found  beneficial,  and  will  aid  materially  in  restoring  the  gland 
to  its  normal  condition.  The  administration  of  epsom  salts 
as  a  laxative  is  advised,  especially  in  cases  where  the  bowels  are 
inclined  to  be  sluggish. 

cow-pox 

Cow-pox  is  an  infectious  disease  of  the  udder,  characterized 
by  inflammation  and  the  formation  of  vesicles  or  blisters  which 
undergo   certain   well-marked   changes.      The    disease  spreads 


214  COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE 

very  slowly  from  animal  to  animal,  but  will  spread  readily  by 
the  hands  of  the  milker.  Cow-pox  is  very  closely  associated 
with  human  small-pox. 

Cases  of  cow-pox  have  been  reported  to  occur  in  cows  that 
had  been  milked  by  persons  affected  with  small-pox.  Young, 
healthy  calves  are  used  for  the  production  of  small-pox  vaccine. 

Cause. — The  cause  of  cow-pox  has  not  yet  been  determined. 
It  is  thought  to  be  due,  however,  to  germs  (bacteria)  which  are 
ultra-microscopic,  too  small  to  be  seen  by  aid  of  the  microscope. 

Symptoms. — Cow-pox  is  usually  accompanied  by  a  slight 
elevation  of  temperature.  This  condition  is  not,  however, 
always  constant.  The  age  of  the  cow  is  an  important  factor  in 
making  a  diagnosis,  as  the  disease  affects  chiefly  young  cows. 
The  milk  flow  may  or  may  not  be  decreased.  The  eruptions  of 
the  vesicles  (blisters)  occur  on  the  teats  and  the  adjoining- 
parts  of  the  udder.  The  development  of  the  pocks  are  divided 
into  well-marked  characteristic  stages.  The  first  stage  of  the 
eruption  consists  of  pink-colored  pimples  about  the  size  of  a 
pea.  The  pimple  subsequently  changes  into  a  blister  which 
contains  a  sticky,  whitish  fluid.  The  blisters  on  the  teats  vary 
in  form,  while  the  ones  on  the  udder  are  circular  and  show  a 
depression  in  the  center.  The  blisters  vary  in  size,  some  meas- 
uring as  much  as  one-half  to  one  inch  in  diameter.  When  the 
pocks  occur  on  the  surface  covered  with  long  hair,  they  do  not 
form  blisters,  but  discharge  a  straw-colored  fluid  which  cements 
the  hair  and  forms  a  brownish-yellow  mass.  The  blisters  ma- 
ture about  the  tenth  day  and  then  dry  up  into  a  dark  brown 
crust  which  drops  off  a  few  days  later,  leaving  a  scar.  Many  of 
the  pocks  are  ruptured  during  milking,  causing  the  frequent 
formation  of  angry-looking  sores  which  heal  slowly.  Only  in 
rarer  cases  does  the  disease  affect  other  parts  of  the  body. 

Treatment. — Local  treatment  is  all  that  is  required.  A 
separate  attendant  should  be  provided  to  care  for  the  diseased 
animals.  They  should  be  milked  carefully  so  that  the  blisters 
will  not  become  ruptured.  The  persistent  sores  may  be  washed 
with  mild  antiseptic  solutions.  The  attendant  should  keep  his 
hands  and  arms  washed  with  an  antiseptic  Application  of  zinc 
oxide  ointment  to  the  ruptured  pocks  will  be  beneficial. 


CHAPPED  TEATS  215 

CHAPPED  TEATS 

The  condition,  chapped  teats,  is  quite  common  during  the 
*~  winter  season  and  is  due  to  excessive  local  irritation  of  the 
teats.  The  sucking  of  the  calf,  and  sudden  chilling  of  the  teat 
after  the  calf  has  finished,  will  often  produce  a  chapped  con- 
dition. Cows  kept  in  cold,  damp  stalls  often  suffer  from 
chapped  teats  due  to  the  teats  and  udder  coming  in  contact  with 
water  and  filth  when  the  cow  is  lying  down.  Sudden  exposure 
to  cold  after  the  completion  of  milking  with  wet  hands  will 
also  cause  this  condition.  Chapped  teats  may  be  either  mild 
or  severe  in  form,  depending  upon  the  amount  and  the  nature 
of  the  irritant.  In  mild  cases  the  fissures  (cracks)  are  small, 
and  the  flow  of  milk  is  unaltered,  while  in  severe  cases  the 
fissures  may  form  large  gaping  wounds  (sores)  which,  at  times, 
will  cause  a  retention  of  the  milk  and  even  inflammation  of  the 
udder  (mammitis). 

Treatment. — The  affected  animal  should  be  placed  in  a 
clean,  dry,  warm  stall,  and  great  care  should  be  exercised  when 
milking  so  as  to  allow  the  wound  to  heal.  The  use  of  vaseline 
is  recommended  because  of  its  soothing  effect  on  the  chapped 
areas.  In  cases  where  healing  is  tardy,  the  application  of  mild 
antiseptic  solution  will  be  found  beneficial. 

WARTS  (PAPILLOMATA) 

Treatment. — Warts  may  be  greatly  benefited  or  entirely 
are  frequently  located  on  the  surface  skin  of  the  teats.  They 
are  not  only  unsightly,  but  often  become  very  troublesome. 
Warts  occurring  on  the  teats  of  heifers  are  essentially  benign 
and  as  a  rule  respond  readily  to  treatment. 

Treatment. — Warts  may  be  greatly  benefitted  or  entirely 
removed  by  the  application  of  pure  olive  oil,  the  oil  being 
generously  smeared  over  the  surface  of  the  warts  after  each 
milking.     Persistent  Avarts  require  surgical  interference. 

BLOATING  (HOVEN) 

This  is  a  disease  characterized  by  swelling  or  distention  of 
the  left  flank,  and  is  caused  by  the  formation  of  gas  in  the 
rumen  or  paunch. 


216  COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE 

Causes. — Some  animals  are  predisposed  to  bloating  by  the 
habit  of  over-eating  or  eating  too  quickly.  The  chief  cause, 
however,  is  the  introduction  into  the  stomach  of  large  quantities 
of  feed  which  ferments  and  produces  great  volumes  of  gases. 
Bloating  is  caused  most  frequently  by  eating  green  feed.  It  is 
also  caused  by  sudden  changing  from  dry  fodder  to  green  corn, 
by  feeding  on  rank,  luxuriant  grass  or  clover,  wet  or  frozen 
roots,  rotten  potatoes,  or  by  allowing  cattle  to  drink  large  quan- 
tities of  water  soon  after  feeding.  Bloating  caused  by  eating 
young  clover  is  quite  common,  occurring  mostly  when  the  cattle 
are  first  allowed  to  feed  on  it.  Clover  is  not  so  apt  to  produce 
bloating  after  it  has  blossomed.  Calves  suffering  from  indiges- 
tion often  develop  hoven. 

Symptoms. — The  chief  and  characteristic  symptom  of  bloat- 
ing consists  of  a  swelling  in  the  region  of  the  left  flank,  from 
which  a  drum-like  sound  is  emitted  when  struck  with  the 
finger-tips. 

The  normal  sounds  of  the  rumen  cease  and  the  appetite  and 
rumination  (chewing  of  the  cud)  are  suspended.  Frequent 
passages  of  small  amounts  of  manure  occur  at  first,  but  gradu- 
ally cease  until  no  further  passages  are  noticed.  The  animal 
has  an  anxious  expression,  moves  uneasily,  as  if  ^  in  great  dis- 
tress, the  back  is  frequently  arched  and  the  breathing  is  rapid 
and  difficult.  As  the  bloating  increases,  the  breathing  becomes 
more  laborious  and  the  animal  experiences  great  difficulty  in 
retaining  its  equilibrium,  and  if  not  relieved  within  a  short 
time,  falls  down  and  suffocates.  Frothing  at  the  mouth,  together 
with  occasional  belching  of  gas,  are  frequent  symptoms. 

Course  of  the  Disease. — The  course  of  acute  bloating  is 
very  rapid.  If  the  rumen  is  only  moderately  distended  the 
animal  may  recover  unaided,  while  in  severe  cases  the  animal 
may  die  in  an  hour  or  so  if  not  relieved. 

Treatment. — As  regards  prevention,  one  should  avoid  the 
sudden  changing  from  dry  to  green  feed,  and  cut  green  feed 
should  not  be  fed  after  it  has  begun  to  ferment.  Cattle  should 
be  allowed  to  pasture  only  for  a  short  time  on  clover,  at  first, 
and  the  feeding  of  frozen,   watery  feeds  should  be  avoided. 


SIMPLE  DIARRHEA  IN  CALVES  217 

Mild  cases  of  hoven  may  be  successfully  treated  by  placing  a 
rope  or  straw  band  smeared  with  tar  or  some  other  nauseous 
material  in  the  animal's  mouth,  securing  it  by  tying  behind  the 
horns.  Vigorous  massage  on  the  left  flank  tends  to  relieve  the 
distended  paunch  and  is  practiced  with  good  results  in  cases 
which  are  not  severe.  In  severe  cases  the  trocar  and  cannula 
should  be  used  without  delay.  To  puncture  the  rumen  (paunch) 
a  spot  should  be  selected  that  is  equally  distant  from  the  last 
rib,  the  hip-bone,  and  the  transverse  processes  of  the  lumbar 
vertebras  (Fig.  73).  The  trocar  should  be  held  so  that  the 
sharp  point  is  directed  downward,  inward,  and  slightly  forward 
when  by  a  sharp  blow  with  the  palm  of  the  hand  it  is  plunged 
into  the  paunch.  A  previous  incision  about  one-half  inch  in 
length  through  the  skin  makes  the  operation  easier.  The  can- 
nula or  sheath  of  the  trocar  should  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
paunch  as  long  as  any  gas  escapes  from  it.  If  the  cannula  is 
removed  while  gas  is  still  forming  in  the  paunch  it  may  become 
necessary  to  insert  it  again.  In  obstinate  cases  it  is  sometimes 
necessary  to  leave  the  cannula  in  the  paunch  for  several  hours. 
When  a  trocar  is  not  obtainable,  the  operation  may  be  performed 
with  a  knife.  After  the  bloating  has  subsided,  it  is  advisable 
to  drench  the  animal  with  a  pound  or  a  pound  and  one-half  of 
epsom  or  Glauber  salts.  A  recent  bulletin  issued  by  the  Ken- 
tucky Station  recommends  the  use  of  formalin  for  the  treat- 
ment of  bloat,  when  caused  by  clover.  They  advise  drenching 
the  affected  animal  with  one  quart  of  a  one  and  one-half  per 
cent  solution  of  formalin  in  water. 

SIMPLE  DIARRHEA   ( SCOURING)   IN  CALVES 

Scours  in  calves  is  a  rather  common  disease  and  is  usually 
caused  by  improper  diet.  The  disease,  white  scours,  is  in- 
fectious in  nature  and  while  occurring  quite  often,  is  not  nearly 
so  common  as  the  simple  form. 

Causes. — Simple  scouring  is  a  common  result  of  indigestion 
caused  by  a  too  liberal  supply  of  milk  or  too  rich  milk.      Scour- 


218 


COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE 


ing  often  results  from  allowing  too  much  time  between  meals. 
Unhygienic  conditions,  such  as  dirty,  sour  drinking  tanks  or 
dark,  cold,  damp  or  foul-smelling  stalls  or  pens,  tend  to  produce 
scours.  Faulty  weaning,  such  as  too  early  feeding  on  dry. 
coarse  feed  and  feeds  that  contain  large  amounts  of  starchy 
material,  are  causative  factors.  The  physical  condition  of  the 
cow  bears  a  close  relation  to  the  health  of  her  suckling  and  care 
should  be  used  in  providing  her  with  proper  feed  and  care  so 


-The  X  indicates  the  point  where  the  wall  of  flank  and 
trocar  and  cannula  in  "bloat." 


punctured  with 


as  to  prevent  the  quality  of  the  milk  from  becoming  impaired, 
and  the  quantity  diminished. 

Intestinal  parasites  (worms)  may  at  times  produce  diar- 
rhea by  irritating  the  mucous  lining  of  the  stomach  and 
intestines. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  usually  occur  suddenly, 
although  they  may  come  on  gradually.  In  sucklings,  the 
symptoms  of  diarrhea   (scouring)   may  be  preceded  by:    Do- 


SYMPTOMS  219 

pression,  weakness,  and  disinclination  to  suck.  When  the  dis- 
ease is  due  to  improper  diet  or  exposure,  symptoms  of  chilling 
followed  by  fever  will  be  noticed.  The  body  temperature  is 
unevenly  distributed,  the  legs  being  cold  and  the  muzzle  dry. 
The  diarrhea  which  soon  sets  in  consists  of  rather  pasty 
manure  of  normal  color  and  odor,  at  first,  but  rapidly  becomes 
watery  and  is  light  gray  in  color  accompanied  by  a  peculiarly 
characteristic  and  offensive  odor.  As  the  disease  advances,  the 
passages  become  numerous,  and  the  tail  and  legs  become  stained 
with  the  dung  which  clings  to  the  hair  and  skin.  The  dung 
will  be  frequently  passed  in  the  form  of  a  jet  or  liquid  stream. 
Bloating  is  commonly  noticed;  and  colicky  symptoms  are  not 
rare.  Toward  the  end,  the  animal  stands  with  its  back  arched. 
The  skin  becomes  dry  and  the  odor  given  off  by  the  various 
channels  is  very  offensive,  and  the  animal  becomes  weak  and 
listless.  During  the  later  stages  the  dung  at  times  becomes 
streaked  with  blood.  The  course  of  the  disease  may  be  acute 
or  chronic.  The  affected  animal  may  die  within  a  few  days  or 
may  live  for  several  weeks.  When  death  occurs,  it  is  usually  due 
to  exhaustion  and  lung  complications  (pneumonia). 

Prevention. — When  diarrhea  occurs  in  the  suckling,  the 
treatment  should  be  mainly  applied  to  the  mother.  The  cow 
should  be  supplied  with  a  proper  diet  and  all  factors  which  un- 
favorably influence  the  quality  of  the  milk  should  be  removed. 
In  case  the  mother  is  suffering  from  disease,  the  calf  should 
be  permitted  to  suckle  a  healthy  cow.  When  diarrhea  is  due 
to  improper  feeding,  the  error  should  be  corrected  immediately. 
Hygienic  measures  such  as  proper  light,  ventilation  and  clean- 
liness applied  to  calf  pens,  tend  to  keep  the  calf  in  good  health 
and  prevent  disease.  Exercise  is  also  of  much  importance. 
Calves  fed  from  pails  are  in  danger  of  developing  scours,  unless 
absolute  cleanliness  is  maintained.  The  feeder  has  to  be  on 
the  alert  also  so  as  to  prevent  greedy  calves  from  drinking  an 
over-amount  of  milk. 

Treatment. — The  early  administrations  of  laxatives  are  in- 
dicated in  order  to  remove  irritating  substances  from  the  bowels. 
For  this  purpose,  castor  oil  in  one  or  two-ounce  doses  is  recom- 


220  COMMON  AILMENTS  OF  CATTLE 

mended.  The  calf's  ration  of  milk  should  be  reduced  one-half, 
and  in  cases  where  the  milk  does  not  agree  with  the  affected 
animal,  barley  gruel  to  which  raw  eggs  are  added,  may  be 
substituted.  A  mild  solution  of  formalin,  which  is  mixed  with 
the  milk,  is  quite  efficacious  for  the  treatment  of  this  disease. 

KINGWOEM    (BALD  SCAB) 

Ringworm  is  a  highly  contagious,  transmissible  disease  of 
the  skin  caused  by  a  vegetable  parasite  (Tinea  Tonsurans). 
This  disease  affects  the  root  and  shaft  of  the  hair,  causing  it  to 
become  brittle  and  finally  fall  out.  Calves  are  commonly 
affected,  especially  during  winter  and  spring. 

Ringworm  is  communicable  to  man. 

Symptoms. — Ringworm  is  manifested  by  the  formation  of 
circular  hairless  patches,  on  the  skin  of  the  head,  neck  and 
extremities.  The  patches  vary  in  size,  some  being  about  the 
size  of  a  pea,  while  others  will  measure  an  inch  or  more  across. 
The  patches  or  spots  are  usually  scattered,  although  they  may 
run  together,  forming  large  ones.  The  skin  becomes  slightly 
inflamed  and  the  exudate,  which  is  of  a  sticky  nature,  forms 
dry,  brittle  and  scaly  crusts  of  a  greyish  color.  Occasionally 
the  entire  skin  of  the  body  will  become  affected,  which  may  result 
in  complete  nakedness.  In  sucking  calves  the  patches  form 
mainly  around  the  mouth.  The  disease  is  attended  by  itching 
which  is  manifested  by  rubbing  in  the  affected  animal.  Any 
animal  so  affected  is  uncomfortable,  restless  and  does  poorly. 

Treatment. — Preventive  measures  consist  of  removal  of 
affected  animals,  cleaning  and  disinfection  of  stalls.  The 
affected  patches  or  spots  should  be  washed  with  soap  and  water 
so  as  to  remove  all  crusts  and  after  drying,  tincture  of  iodine 
may  be  applied  by  painting  the  diseased  areas.  The  treatment 
may  be  applied  once  daily.  If  attended  to  faithfully  recovery 
should  be  complete  in  four  to  six  weeks. 


{v^J&tA 


\Ao 


QUESTIONS  221 

low  general  is  the  disease,  bovine  tuberculosis? 

2.  How  is  its   presence   detected? 

3.  What  dangers  to  the  herd  would   result  if  one  tubercular  cow  were 

allowed  to  mingle  freely  with  the  herd? 

4.  What  is  tuberculin  used  for  ? 

5.  What  is  infectious  abortion? 
C.  What  are  its  symptoms? 

7.  How  does  abortion  affect  the  milk  flow  following? 

8.  How  is  the  disease  spread?-'     -^--*a^t-' 

9.  What  means  may  be  taken  to  prevent  its  spread  ? 

10.  How  should  an  aborting  cow  and  the  dead  calf  be  handled? 

11.  What  treatment  is  recommended  for  the  affected  animal? 
12'.  What  is  milk  fever  ? 

13.  What  are  its  symptoms    (signs)  ? 

14.  How  should  a  case  of  milk  fever  be  treated? 

15.  How  should  a  heavy  milking  cow  be  handled  to  reduce  the  danger  of 

milk  fever  to  the  least  possible  point? 

16.  How  damaging  is  the  foot  and  mouth  disease? 

17.  What  are  the  symptoms  of  this  disease? 

18.  How  is  it  spread? 

19.  What  means  should  be  taken  to  check  an  epidemic? 

20.  What  is  ergotism? 

21.  What  conditions  bring  about  foul  rot  in  the  feet  of  cattle? 

22.  What  are  the  symptoms  of  mammitis  ? 

23.  What  causes  the  trouble? 

24.  What  is  the  best  treatment  for  it? 

25.  What  treatment  is  advised  for  garget? 

26.  How  is  cow-pox  spread?     How  cured? 

27.  How  should  chapped  teats  be  cared  for? 

28.  What  may  be  done  to  remove  warts  on  cows'  teats? 

29.  What  brings  on  hoven  in  cattle? 

30.  What  is  the  best  treatment? 

31.  What  conditions  of  feed  cause  scours  in  calves? 

32.  What  conditions  in  stalls  or  pen  aggravate  the  case? 

33.  How  should  calves  suffering  with  common  scours  be  handled? 

34.  How  may  ringworm  be  cured? 


PART  IV 

WINTER  FEEDING 


t 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
WINTER  FEEDING  OF   DAIRY  COWS 


Of  all  the  problems  confronting  the  keepers  of  the  twenty- 
two  million  cows  in  America  kept  for  dairy  purposes,  adequate 
and  proper  feeding  is  the  most  important  at  the  present  time. 
Possibly  because  of  the  great  variety  of  -conditions  and  feed 
stuffs,  the  knowledge  of  the  best  methods  of  feeding  has  been 
very  slow  of  development.  Many  discouraging  statements  have 
been  made  regarding  the  productive  capacity  of  the  "  average  " 
cow  in  the  United  States.  It  is  true  that  the  average  yield  is 
far  below  the  amount  obtained  by  the  good  dairy  cows  and  only 
a  fraction  of  that  produced  by  the  few  outstanding  leaders. 
This  difference  is  not  by  any  means  wholly  due  to  the  incapacity 
of  the  cows  themselves  to  do  better  work.  The  fact  that  many 
of  them  are  miserably  under-fed  and  often  housed  in  uncom- 
fortable quarters  has  much  to  do  with  the  situation.  In  an  en- 
deavor such  as  inducing  cows  to  give  more  milk,  one  will  not  go 
far  wrong  if  one  will  study  the  cows'  requirements  on  the  basis  of 
what  they  receive  when  doing  their  best  work  and  then  imitate  or 
duplicate  as  nearly  as  possible  those  conditions  the  year  round. 

Copy  Nature. — Cows,  while  living  under  a  more  or  less 
wild  condition,  usually  freshen  in  the  early  spring  and  produce 
the  greatest  flow  of  milk  during  the  latter  part  of  May,  June, 
and  the  first  half  of  July.  By  studying  the  conditions  of  this 
season  of  the  year  and  desiring  to  duplicate  them  at  a  season  when 
butter  fat  is  most  valuable  per  pound  and  when  field  work  is  light 
or  lacking  altogether,  we  may  find  a  way  to  more  profit. 

Analyzing  the  question  we  note  that  there  are  several  factors 
influencing  the  returns. 

Time  of  Calving. — Although  cows  may  be  said  naturally  to 
calve  in  the  spring,  they  very  readily  adapt  themselves  to  fall 
calving.  In  this  respect  then  we  may  arrange  for  a  spring- 
time flow  of  milk  in  winter. 

15  225 


226  WINTER  FEEDING  OF  DAIRY  COWS 

Comfort  of  body,  present  in  the  early  summer  to  the  greatest 
degree,  is  essential  to  liberal  production.  In  order  that  the 
cow  under  artificial  circumstances  shall  be  as  productive  as  her 
inherited  nature  will  permit,  complete  comfort,  both  in  tem- 
perature of  stable  and  in  sleeping  quarters,  is  necessarily  re- 
quired for  winter. 

Very  comfortable  stables  are  now  in  use  and  becoming  more 
common.  The  temperature  of  summer  may  be  closely  duplicated 
in  winter. 


D  E H 

Fig.  74. — Illustrating  the  economy  of  liberal  feeding. 

Abundance  of  Feed. — Even  with  the  heavy  stocking  of 
pastures  practiced  in  many  parts  of  the  country  there  is  usually 
a  great  abundance  of  feed  for  the  cows  for  a  few  weeks  and  it 
is  observed  that  during  this  period  of  abundance  the  cows  yield 
milk  most  liberally  and  we  find  that  logic,  experience  and  scien- 
tific findings  all  agree  that  any  animal,  to  produce  freely, 
must  be  freely  fed.  The  value  of  mere  abundance  of  feed  may 
be  well  illustrated  in  the  diagram  (Fig.  7-i)  in  which  let  the 
upper  bar  indicated  by  the  length  of  the  line  A  C  be  the  amount 
of  feed  given  to  cow  ISTo.  1,  and  the  lower  line  D  H,  the  amount 
of  feed  given  to  cow  No.  2,  of  equal  weight  and  form.  These 
two  cows,  for  the  maintenance  of  their  bodies,  will  consume  or 
burn  daily  a  quantity  of  feed  represented  by  the  distances  A  B 
and  D  E,  respectively-  The  maintenance  amount  of  feed  is  a 
fairly  constant  quantity. 

It  is  evident  that  cow  No.  1  will  have  a  balance  of  feed  over 
and  above  the  amount  for  maintenance  represented  by  the  short 
line  B  C,  whereas  Cow  No.  2  receives  the  amount  of  surplus 
feed  presented  by  the  line  E  H,  the  same  being  three  times  as 


SUCCULENCE  227 

great  as  B  C.  Cow  No.  2  has  not  received  three  times  as  much 
feed  by  any  means,  but  the  surplus  remaining  for  milk  forma- 
tion after  maintenance  has  been  subtracted,  is  three  times  as 
great.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  first  portion  of  the  feed 
given  to  a  cow  is  essentially  wasted  unless  an  additional  amount 
is  given  from  which  milk  may  be  formed.  Cows  do  not  create 
the  substance  of  milk,  they  merely  change  its  form  from  that  of 
grass,  hay  and  grain  to  that  of  milk  sugar,  milk  fat,  casein, 
albumen  and  ash.  The  Scotch  have  a  saying,  "  Give  to  a  steer 
a  gallon  of  meal  and  it  is  a  gallon  wasted,  give  him  two  and  he 
will  pay  for  three."     There  is  truth  in  it. 

Palatability. — ifere  abundance,  however,  is  not  all  the  animal 
needs  by  any  means.  A  cow  might  be  tied  to  a  straw  stack  and 
starve  to  death.  In  addition,  the  feed  must  be  palatable  in  order 
to  be  consumed  in  sufficient  quantities  and  be  most  valuable. 
Feed  eaten  with  repugnance  might  often  better  have  remained 
uneaten  so  far  as  any  good  to  the  animal  is  concerned. 

Fresh  grass  is  about  the  most  palatable  feed  to  cattle  and 
large  quantities  are  eaten  while  it  is  tender.  Winter  hay  may 
often  be  made  more  valuable  by  sprinkling  it  with  salty  water 
or  molasses  water  to  make  it  more  palatable. 

Succulence  is  unquestionably  one  of  the  qualities  of  early 
summer  grass  which  materially  assists  the  cow  in  heavy  pro- 
, •-  ■duction.  This  quality  in  the  winter's  feed  may  be  provided 
in  ample  measure  in  the  form  of  corn  silage  or,  when  such  is 
not  available,  in  the  form  of  mangles,  ruta-bagas,  or  other 
roots,  or  potatoes.  The  succulent  quality  in  feed  is  of  value  in 
several  ways.  The  cow  is  induced  thereby  to  consume  a  larger 
amount  and  that  which  she  does  consume  is  more  easily  mas- 
ticated and  more  easily  and  economically  digested,  thus  more 
valuable  per  unit  of  feed  material  present.  If  to  the  succulent 
quality  there  can  be  retained  or  added  the  flavors  particularly 
relished  by  cows,  such  for  instance  as  well  made  corn  silage, 
the  digestion  of  these  feeds  is  facilitated  by  the  fact.  Over 
ripe  hay  and  dry  corn  stover  are  so  hard  that  their  net  value  to 
the  animal  is  only  a  half  or  less  of  the  apparent  value  as  in- 
dicated by  a  table  of  digestible  nutrients. 


228 


WINTER  FEEDING  OF  DAIRY  COWS 


Anti-scorbutic  (anti-scurvy)  vitamin©  is  undoubtedly  fur- 
nished in  silage  and  this  rather  than  mere  succulence  may  be 
the  reason  why  silage-fed  cattle  are  generally  most  thrifty. 

Balance  of  Nutrients. — One  of  the  most  important  features 
influencing  the  matter  of  large  and  economical  yields  of  milk  is 
the  balance  of  the  nutrients  in  the  feed  given.  It  is  in  this 
phase  of  the  subject  that  most  feeders  make  the  most  serious 
mistakes.  The  need  of  any  mature  cow  for  feed  may  be  briefly 
stated  as  the  demand  for  small  quantities  of  various  ash  ma- 
terials to  maintain  the  bone  of  the  body,  to  furnish  ash  to  the 
milk,  and  for  other  purposes.  The  quantity  and  nature  of  the 
ash  are  nearly,  if  not  quite,  amply  provided  by  a  mixed  rough- 


FlG.  75. — Art  and  utility  may  be  successfully  combined.     Dairy  stable  and   two   silos 
belonging  to  E.  H.  Sears. 

age  and  grain  ration,  especially  if  a  small  quantity  of  bone  meal 
is  mixed  with  the  cow's  salt.  The  cow,  however,  contains  large 
quantities  of  muscular  tissue  or  lean  meat  which  is  slowly  but 
continually  wearing  out  and  being  voided  from  the  system.  To 
make  good  this  loss,  materials  of  like  character  must  be  pro- 
vided. Lean  meat  is  composed  very  largely  of  proteins.  Plants 
contain  protein,  not  of  identical  character,  but  similar,  and 
under  normal  conditions  it  is  only  from  the  plant  protein  that 
animal  tissue  is  built.  Milk  contains  about  3.50  pounds  pro- 
tein in  every  100  pounds.  Cows,  therefore,  require  especially 
liberal  amounts  of  protein  in  their  rations. 

A  third  element  required  is  heat  and  energy.      Some  heat  is 


THE  MAINTENANCE  RATION  229 

obtained  from  the  protein  nutrients,  but  it  is  needed  in  such 
amount  that  to  provide  all  of  it  in  the  form  of  protein  would  be 
too  expensive  and  injurious  to  the  cow.  The  starchy  and 
sugary  portions  of  feeds  provide  energy  and  heat  most  cheaply. 
The  fat  or  oil  of  corn,  hay  or  other  feeds  goes,  likewise,  to  the 
supply  of  heat  and  energy.  But  since  the  heating  power  of  a 
feed  nutrient  is  indicated  largely  by  the  percentage  amount  of 
carbon  in  its  compound,  and  fat  is  so  much  richer  in  this  ele- 
ment than  starch  or  sugar,  it,  fat,  has  about  2.25  times  more 
heating  power  than  starch.  The  fat  of  the  animal  body  is  not 
necessarily  made  from  the  fat  of  plants  but  oily  feeds  naturally 
encourage  the  laying  on  of  fat.  For  convenience  the  purely 
heat  and  energy-bearing  feeds,  such  as  starch  and  sugar,  are 
called  carbohydrates^  while  all  fats  are  grouped  by  themselves. 

It  is  customary  to  classify  all  needed  feed  nutrients  as  pro- 
tein, carbohydrate  and  fat.  These  are  the  three  constituents 
which  we  must  provide  in  the  cow's  winter  ration  if  she  is  to 
yield  milk  in  winter  as  freely  as  in  summer. 

The  maintenance  ration  is  the  name  given  to  the  amount  of 
feed  which  is  required  to  just  sustain  the  weight  of  an  animal 
for  twenty-four  hours.  On  a  perfect  maintenance  ration  an  ani- 
mal will  neither  gain  nor  lose  weight.  The  amount  of  feed  needed 
by  large  cows  is  naturally  greater  than  that  required  for  small 
ones,  and  that  by  very  active  animals  greater  than  for  slower  mo- 
tioned ones.  Just  how  much  of  thei  three  digestible  nutrients,  pro- 
tein, carbohydrates  and  fats,  a  cow  of  1000  pounds'  weight  re- 
quires was  studied  first  in  Germany,  but  the  figures  obtained  there 
were  too  high  to  be  accurate  under  American  conditions.    . 

The  standard  now  most  largely  used  in  this  country  is  the 
one  settled  upon  by  Haecker  of  the  Minnesota  Station  after 
many  years  of  careful  work  and  is  as  follows:  Digestible  pro- 
tein 0.7  pounds,  digestible  carbohydrates  Y.O  pounds,  and  diges- 
tible fat  0.1  pound  per  21  hours,  for  an  average  cow  of  1000 
pounds,  where  kept  under  good  practical  stable  conditions. 

The  following  table  gives  the  nutrients  allowed  daily  for 
the  maintenance  feed  for  cows  of  given  weights,  ranging  from 
800  pounds  to  1625  pounds,1 

^Tinn.  Bui.  130. 


230  WINTER  FEEDING  OF  DAIRY  COWS 

Table  I.  Feed  of  Maintenance 


Weight 

Protein  Carbohydrates 

Fat 

Weight 

Protein  C 

Jarbohydrates 

Fat 

800 

.5G0 

5.60 

.OS 

1225 

.857 

8.57 

.12 

825 

.577 

5.77 

.08 

1250 

.875 

8.75 

.12 

850 

.595 

5.95 

.08 

1275 

'  .892 

8.92 

.13 

875 

.612 

6.12 

.09 

1300 

.910 

9.10 

.13 

900 

.030 

6.30 

.09 

1325 

.927 

9.27 

.13 

925 

.647 

6.47 

.09 

1350 

.945 

9.45 

.13 

950 

.665 

6.65 

.09 

1375 

.902 

9.62 

.14 

975 

.682' 

6.82 

.10 

1400 

.980 

9.80 

.14 

1000 

.700 

7.00 

.1(1 

1425 

.997 

9.97 

.14 

1025 

.717 

7.17 

.10 

1450 

1.015 

10.15 

.14 

1050 

.7:35 

7.35 

.10 

1475 

1.032 

10.32 

.15 

1075 

.752 

7.52 

.11 

1500 

1 .050 

10.50 

.15 

1100 

.770 

7.70 

.11 

1525 

1.007 

10.07 

.15 

1125 

.787 

7.87 

.11 

1550 

1.0S5 

10.85 

.15 

1150 

.805 

8.05 

.11 

1575 

1.102 

1 1 .02 

.16 

1175 

.822 

S.22 

.12 

1000 

1.120 

11.20 

.16 

1200 

.840 

8.40 

.12 

1625 

1.137 

11.36 

.16 

Ration  for  Milk  Production  (The  Haecker  Feeding  Stand- 
ard).— For  many  years  the  only  available  standard  or  guide 
in  feeding  for  milk  production  was  that  of  Wolf,  later  modified 
by  Lehrnann,  which  standard  took  into  account  only  roughly 
the  amount  of  milk  yielded  per  day  and  no  account  at  all  of  the 
quality  of  the  milk. 

The  following  table  from  Minnesota  Station  Bulletin  130 
shows  that  as  milk  increases  in  fat  percentage  it  also  increases 
in  protein  and  sugar. 

The  comparative  value  or  cost  of  milks  of  various  fat  per- 
centage is  best  shown  by  reducing  all  the  nutrients  to  a  single 
term  called  the  Starch  Equivalent.  This  is  obtained  by  mul- 
tiplying the  amount  of  fat  by  2.25  and  adding  to  the  product  the 
amount  of  Protein  and  Carbohydrates. 

The  following  table  makes  this  matter  clearer.  A  glance  at 
the  table  convinces  one  that  to  feed  amply  and  yet  not  waste,  full 
account  needs  be  taken  of  the  quality  as  well  as  the  quantity  of 
the  milk  being  produced  by  the  cow  being  fed. 


^ADJUSTING-  THE  RATION    '  231 

Organic  Composition  of  Milk  2 

Fat  Protein  Carbohydrates            Starch  Equivalent 

3.0  2.68  4.60  14  03 

3.5  2.81  475  15.44 

4.0  3.08  4.85  16.93 

4.5  3.27  4.97  18.37 

5.0  3.45  4.98  19.68 

6.0  3.82  K          4.91  22.23 

6.5  4.12  4.90  2365 

7.0  4.22  ,           4.84  24.81 

This  has  now  been  carefully  worked  out  and  published  in 
Minnesota  Station  Bulletin  130,  from  which  the  following- 
tables  are  taken. 

A  number  of  feeding  standards  have  been  suggested,  but  the 
one  developed  by  Haecker,  of  the  Minnesota  Station,  is  the  most 
workable.  Haecker  was  the  first  investigator  to  consider  the 
maintenance  of  the  cow  separate  from  the  milk,  to  recognize  the 
quality  of  the  milk  as  well  as  the  quantity,  and  to  reduce  the 
whole  to  a  unity  basis. 

Adjusting  the  Ration. — There  is  what  may  be  called  a 
triple  balance  in  the  matter  of  feeding  dairy  cows,  (of  the 
balance  of  the  amount  of  roughage  to  the  size  of  the  cow,  (b)  the|  *$*&, 
balance  of  the  amount  of  grain  to  be  fed  to  the  amount  and 
quality  of  the  milk  the  cow  is  giving,  and  (c)  the  balance  of  the 
chemical  nutrients  to  the  needs  of  the  cow. 

On  the  average  a  cow  will  eat  2  pounds  of  hay  or  its  equiva- 
lent per  hundred  pounds  per  day.  A  cow  weighing  900  pounds 
will  eat  18  pounds  of  hay  very  readily  and  one  of  1400  pounds 
should  consume  28  pounds  of  hay  per  day.  Ordinarily,  how- 
ever, the  lighter  weight  cows,  if  they  are  of  dairy  type,  will  eat 
more  for  their  weight  than  heavier  ones.  Where  corn  silage  is 
fed  due  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  high  water  content  of  it. 

Silage  as  now  usually  made  from  comparatively  mature 
corn  contains  about  26  per  cent  dry  matter,  thus  3  pounds  will 
contain  0.78  pound  dry  matter,  which  is  roughly  the  equivalent 
of  1  pound  of  hay  (0.87  pound  of  dry  matter). 

2  Minn.  Bui.   130. 


232 


WINTER  FEEDING  OF  DAIRY  COWS 


TABLE  II.    FEEDING  STANDARD 
GryiNc  Net  Nutrients  Required  for  the  Production  of  Milk  Containing 
Given  Per  Cent  of  Butter-Fat 


%   FAT  IN  MILK 

%   FAT  IN  MILK 

%  FAT  IN  MILK 

Lbs. 
of 

3.0 

3.1 

3.2 

Milk 

Pro. 

C-H. 

Fat 

.  Pro. 

C-H. 

Fat 

t   Pro. 

C-H. 

Fat 

1 

.047 

.20 

.017 

.047 

.20 

.017 

048 

.21 

018 

2 

.094 

.40 

.034 

.095 

.41  • 

035 

.096 

.41 

036 

3 

.141 

.60 

.051 

.142 

.61 

.052 

.143 

.62 

053 

4 

.188 

.80 

.068 

.190 

.81 

.070 

.191 

.83 

071 

5 

•  234 

.99 

.085 

.237 

io; 

.087 

.239 

1.04 

.089 

6 

.281 

1.19 

.102 

.284 

1.22 

.104 

.287 

1.24 

107 

7 

.328 

1.39 

.119 

.332 

1.42 

.122 

.335 

1.45 

125 

8 

.375 

1  59 

.136 

.379 

1.62 

.139 

382 

1  66 

142 

9 

.422 

1.79 

.153 

.427 

1.83 

.157 

.430 

1.87 

160 

10 

.469 

1.99 

.170 

.474 

2.03 

.174 

.478 

2.07 

178 

3.3 

3.4 

3.5 

1 

.048 

.21 

.018 

.049 

.22 

.018 

.049 

.22 

019 

2 

.097 

.42 

.036 

.097 

.43 

.037 

.098 

.44 

038 

3 

.145 

.64 

.054 

.146 

.65 

.055 

.148 

.66 

057 

4 

.193 

.85 

.072 

.194 

.87 

.074 

.197 

.88 

076 

5 

241 

l.oe 

.090 

.243 

1.08 

.092 

.246 

1.10 

094 

6 

.290 

1.27 

.109 

.292 

1  30 

.111 

.295 

1.32 

113 

7 

.338 

1.48 

.127 

.340 

1.51 

.129 

.344 

1.55 

132 

8 

.386 

1.69 

.145 

.389 

1.73 

.148 

.394 

1.77 

151 

fl 

.435 

1.91 

,163 

.437 

1.95 

.166 

.443 

1.99 

170 

10 

.483 

2.12 

.181 

.486 

2.16 

.185 

.492 

2.21 

189 

' 

3.6 

3.7 

3.8 

1 

.050 

.22 

.019 

.051 

.23 

.020 

.052 

.23 

020 

2 

.100 

.45 

.039 

.102 

.46 

.039 

.104 

.47 

040 

3 

.150 

.68 

.058 

.153 

.69 

.059 

.156 

.70 

060 

4 

.200 

.90 

.077 

.204 

.92 

.078 

.208 

.93 

080 

5 

.250 

1.13 

.096 

.255 

1.15 

.098 

.260 

1.17 

100 

6 

.301 

1.35 

.116 

.307 

1.38 

.118 

.312 

1.40 

120 

7 

.351 

1.58 

.135 

.358 

1.60 

.137 

.364 

1.64 

140 

8 

.401 

1.80 

.154 

.409 

1.83 

.157 

.416 

1.87 

160 

9 

.451 

2.03 

.174 

.460 

.  3..  06 

.176 

.468 

2.10 

180 

10 

.501 

2.25 

.193 

.511 

2.29 

.196 

.520 

2.34 

200 

3.9 

4.0 

4-1 

1 

.053 

.24 

.021 

.054 

.24 

.021 

.055 

.25 

021 

2 

.106 

.48 

.041 

.108 

.48 

.042 

.109 

.49 

042 

3 

.159 

.71 

.061 

.162 

.73 

.062 

.164 

.74 

063 

4 

.212 

.95 

.082 

.216 

.97 

.083 

.218 

.99 

084 

5 

.265 

119 

.102 

.269 

1.21 

.104 

.273 

1.23 

105 

6 

.318 

1.43 

>122 

.323 

1.45 

.125 

.328' 

1.48 

127 

7 

.371 

1.67 

.143 

.377 

1.70 

.146 

.382 

1.73 

148 

8 

.424 

1.90 

.163 

.431 

1.94 

.166 

.437 

1.97 

169 

9 

,477 

2.14 

.184 

.485 

2.18 

.187 

.491 

2.22 

190 

10 

.530 

2.38 

.204 

.539 

2.42 

.208 

.546 

2.47 

211 

ADJUSTING  THE  RATION 
TABLE  II.    FEEDING  STANDARD—  Continued 


233 


FAT  IN  MILK 
4.2 


%  FAT  IN  MILK 
4.4 


Pro. 

C-H. 

055 

.25 

111 

.50 

166 

.75 

221 

1.00 

276 

1.25 

332 

1.50 

387 

1.76 

442 

2.01 

497 

2.26 

553 

2.51 

.021 
.043 


.107 
.129 
.150 
.172 
.193 
.215 


Pro. 

C-H. 

.056 

.25 

.112 

.51 

.167 

.76 

.223 

1.02 

.279 

1.27 

.335 

1.53 

.391 

1.78 

.446 

2.04 

.502 

2.29 

.558 

2.55 

Fat 


Pro. 


.022 
.044 
.065 
.087 
.109 
.131 
.153 
.174 
.196 
.218 


.056 
.113 
.169 
.226 
.282 
.339 
.395 
.452 
.508 
.565 


C-H. 

26 

52. 

.78 

1 

.04 

1 

.30 

1 

.56 

1 

.82 

2 

.08 

2 

.34 

2 

.60 

.022 
.044 
.067 


111 
133 
,155 
.178 
.200 
.222 


4.5 


4.7 


057 

.26 

114 

.53 

172 

.79 

229 

1.06 

286 

1.32 

■343 

1.58 

400 

1.85 

458 

2.11 

515 

2.38 

572 

2.64 

.023 
.045 
.068 
.090 
.113 
.136 
.158 
.181 
.203 
.226 


.058 
.116 
.174 
.232 
.289 
.347 
.405 
.463 
.521 
.579 


.27 

,54 
.80 
1.07 
1.34 
1.61 
1.88 
2.14 
2.41 
2.68 


.023 
.046 
.069 
.092 
.115 
.138 
.161 
.184 
.207 
.230 


.058 

.27 

.117 

.54 

.175 

.81 

.234 

1.09 

.292 

1.36 

.350 

1.63 

.409 

1.90 

.467 

2.17 

.526 

2.45 

.584 

2.72 

.023 
.047 
.070 
.093 
.116 
.140 
.163 
.186 
.210 
.233 


4.8 


5.0 


.059 

.28 

.118 

.55 

.177 

.83 

.236 

1.11 

.295 

1.38 

.355 

1.66 

.414 

1.93 

.473 

2.21 

.532 

2.49 

.591 

2.76 

.024 
.047 
.071 
.094 
.118 
.142 
.165 
.189 
.212 
.236 


.060 
.119 
.179 
.239 
.298 
.358 
.418 
.478 
.537 
.597 


28 

56 

84 

1 

12 

1 

40 

1 

68 

1 

96 

2 

24 

2 

52 

2 

80 

.024 
.048 
.072 
.096 
.120 
.144 
.168 
.192 
.216 
.240 


.060 

:28 

.121 

.57 

.181 

.85 

.242 

1.14 

.302 

1.42 

.362 

1.70 

.423 

1.99 

.483 

2.27 

.544 

2.56 

.604 

2.84 

.024 

.049 
.073 
.097 
.121 
.146 
.170 
.194 
.219 
.243 


5.1 


5.2 


5,3 


.061 

.29 

.122 

.57 

.183 

.86 

.244 

1.15 

.305 

1.44 

.367 

1.73 

.428 

2.01 

.489 

2.30 

.550 

2.59 

.611 

2.88 

.025 
.049 
.074 
.099 
.123 
.148 
.173 
.198 
.222 
.247 


062 

.29 

124 

.58 

185 

.87 

247 

1.17 

309 

1.46 

371 

1.75 

433 

2.04 

494 

2.33 

556 

262 

618 

2.91 

.025 
.050 
.075 
.100 
.125 
.150 
.175 
.200 
.225 
.250 


.062 

.29 

.125 

.59 

.187 

.88 

.250 

1.18 

.312 

1.47 

.375 

1.77 

.437 

2.06 

.500 

2.36 

.562 

2.65 

.625 

2.95 

.025 
.051 
.076 
.101 
.126 
.152 
.177 
.202 
.228 
.253 


234  WINTER  FEEDING  OF  DAIRY  COWS 

TABLE  II.    FEEDING  STANDARD— Continued 


%  FAT  IN  MILK 

%  FAT  IN  MILK 

%  FAT  IN  MILK 

Lbs. 
of 

5.4 

5.5 

5.6 

Milk 

Pro. 

C-H. 

Fat 

Pro. 

C-H. 

Fat 

Pro. 

C-H. 

Fat 

1 

.063 

.30 

.  .026 

.064 

.30 

.026 

.064 

.31 

.026 

2 

.126 

.60 

.051 

.128 

.60 

.052 

.129 

.61 

.053 

3 

.190 

.    .90 

.077 

.192 

.91 

.078 

.193 

.92 

.079 

4 

.253 

1.20 

.102 

.256 

1.21 

.104 

.258 

1.23 

.105 

5 

.316 

1.49 

.128 

.320 

1.51 

.129 

.322 

1.53 

.131 

6 

.379 

1.79 

.154 

.383 

1.81 

,155 

.386 

1.84 

.158 

7 

.442 

2.09 

..179 

.447 

2.12 

.181 

.451 

2.15 

.184 

8 

.506 

2.39 

.205 

.511 

2.42 

.207 

.515 

2'45 

.210 

9 

.569 

2.69 

.230 

.575 

2.72 

.233 

.580 

2.76 

.237 

10 

.632 

2.99 

.256 

.639 

3.02 

.259 

.644 

3.07 

.263 

•5.7 

5.8 

5.9 

1 

.065 

.31 

.027 

.066 

.31 

.027 

.066 

.32 

.027 

2 

.130 

.62 

.053 

.131 

.63 

.054 

.133 

.64 

.055 

3 

.195 

.93 

.080 

.197 

.94 

.081 

.199 

.95 

.082 

4 

.260 

1.24 

.106 

.262 

1.26 

.108 

.265 

1  27 

.109 

5 

.325 

1.55 

.133 

.328 

1.57 

.134 

.331 

1.59 

.136 

6 

.391 

1.86 

.160 

.394 

1.89 

.161 

.398 

1.91 

.164 

7 

.456 

2.17 

.186 

.459 

2  20 

.188 

.464 

2.23 

.191 

8 

.521 

2.48 

.213 

.525 

2.51 

215 

.530 

2.54 

.218 

9 

.586  ' 

2.79 

.239 

.590 

2.83 

.242 

.597 

2.86 

.246 

10 

.651 

3.10 

.266 

.656 

3.14 

.269 

.663 

3.18 

.273 

6.0 

6.1 

6.2 

1 

.067 

.32 

.028 

.068 

.33 

.028 

.069 

.33 

.028 

2 

.134 

.64 

.055 

.136 

.65 

.056 

.138 

.66 

.057 

3 

.200 

.97 

.083 

.204 

.98 

.084 

.207 

.99 

.085 

4 

.267 

1.29 

.110 

.272 

1.30 

.112 

.276 

1.32 

.113 

5 

.334 

1.61 

.138 

.339 

1.63 

.139 

.344 

1.65 

.141 

6 

.401 

1.93 

.166 

.407 

1.96 

.167 

.413 

1.98 

.170 

7 

.468 

2.25 

.193 

.475 

2.28 

.195 

.482 

2.31 

.198 

8 

.534 

2,58 

.221 

.543 

2.61 

.223 

.551 

2.64 

.226 

9 

.601 

2.90 

.248 

.611 

2.93 

.251 

.620 

2.97 

.255 

10 

.668 

3.22 

.276 

.679 

3.26 

.279 

.689 

3.30 

.283 

6.3 

6.4 

6.5 

1 

.070 

.33 

.029 

.071 

.34 

.029 

,072 

.34 

.029 

2 

.140 

.67 

.057 

.142 

.67 

.058 

.144 

.68 

.059 

3 

.210 

1.00 

..086 

.213 

1.01 

.087 

.216 

1.02 

.088 

4 

.280 

1.34 

.114 

.284 

1.35 

.116 

.288 

1.37 

.117 

5 

.350 

1.67 

.143 

.355 

1.69 

.144 

.360 

1.71 

.146 

6 

.420 

2.00 

.172 

.426 

2.03 

.173 

.433 

2.05 

.176 

7 

.490 

2.34 

.200 

.497 

2.36 

.202 

.505 

2.39 

.205 

8 

.560 

2.67 

.229 

.568 

2.70 

.231 

.577 

2.73 

.234 

9 

.630 

3.00 

.257 

.639 

3.04 

.260 

.649 

3.07 

.264 

10 

.700 

3.34 

.286 

.710 

3.38 

.289 

.721 

3.42 

.293 

ADJUSTING  THE  RATION  235 

If  then  a  cow  weighs  1200  pounds,  she  would  not  be  given 
24  pounds  of  hay,  but  12  pounds  of  hay  and  36  pounds  (3  X  12) 
of  silage.  When  either  silage  or  hay  is  abundant  it  may  be  fed  in 
quantity  proportionally  greater  and  the  other  proportionally  less 
than  that  mentioned.    This  is  only  a  helpful  rule,  not  a  law. 

The  amount  of  grain  a  cow  should  receive  will  depend 
largely  on  the  amount  and  quality  of  the  milk  produced.  Most 
commonly  one  pound  grain  for  every  three  pounds  of  milk  will 
suffice,  but  this  must  be  increased  to  one  to  two  and  a  half  or  even 
one  to  two  where  the  cow  is  yielding  either  a  large  flow  of 
ordinary  milk  or  a  moderate  amount  of  very  rich  milk.  While 
if  a  cow  is  yielding  only  thirty  pounds  of  3.6  per  cent  milk, 
a  grain  and  milk  ratio  of  one  to  three  would  be  ample.  As 
much  as  one  to  two  and  a  quarter  would  be  desirable  if  sixty 
pounds  of  3.6  per  cent  milk  or  thirty  pounds  of  5.5  per  cent 
milk  were  being  produced. 

The  digestible  nutrients  required  in  the  production  of  milk 
and  the  maintenance  of  the  cow's  body  are  all  found  in  the 
various  feeding  stuffs,  but  in  no  two  of  them  are  the  propor- 
tions of  these  ingredients  the  same  and  in  few,  if  in  any,  is  the 
proportion  the  same  as  that  needed  by  the  cow  for  either  main- 
tenance or  for  milk  formation.  To  emphasize  this  point  and 
to  present  the  matter  in  the  form  most  usable,  Minnesota  Bul- 
letin 130  is  quoted  as  Appendix  Table  III. 

The  adjustment  of  the  amount  of  the  three  nutrients  fed  to 
the  needs  of  the  cow  so  that  she  shall  be  fully  nourished  and  yet 
to  prevent  the  waste  of  any  appreciable  amount  of  any  one  of 
the  nutrients  is  called  "  balancing  the  ration."  The  truly 
balanced  ration  is  the  most  economical  ration  so  far  as  the 
amount  of  feed  is  concerned  and  usually  also  is  the  economical 
ration  in  respect  to  cost. 

Example:  Let  us  suppose  a  cow  weighs  1150  pounds,  and  ia 
giving  daily  26  pounds  of  milk  testing  4.2  per  cent  fat,  what  is 
the  amount  of  nutrients  required  ? 

By  reference  to  Table  III  we  see  that  a  cow  weighing  1150 
pounds  requires  0.805  pound  protein,  8.05  pounds  carbohydrates 
and  0.11  pound  fat  daily  for  mere  bodily  upkeep.     By  turning 


236  WINTER  FEEDING  OF  DAIRY  COWS 

to  Table  II,  under  the  section  headed  "  Percentage  of  fat  in 
milk  4.2/'  we  may  easily  calculate  the  amount  of  each  nutrient 
by  taking  the  amount  indicated  for  2  pounds  of  milk  and  mul- 
tiplying by  10  and  then  adding  in  the  amount  needed  for  0 
pounds  of  milk.  Thus  we  find  that  for  the  formation  of  20 
pounds  of  4.2  per  cent  milk  there  are  required  1.44  pounds  of 
digestible  protein,  6.5  pounds  digestible  carbohydrates  and  0.50 
pound  digestible  fat.     Adding  the  two  amounts  we  have : 


Protein 
.      .805 
.     1.44 

.    2.245 

Carbohydrates 
8.05 
G.50 

Fat 
.11 

26  pounds  4.2  per  cent  milk. 

.56 

il  nutrients   required    

14.55 

.67 

From  the  above  we  see  that  the  cow  assumed  must  be  pro- 
vided with  2I4  pounds  protein,  ll1^  pounds  carbohydrates  and 
more  than  l/o  pound  fat  per  day  or  she  will  either  decrease  in 
milk  flow  or  lose  weight,  or  do  both. 

To  supply  the  nutriment  required  suppose  we  feed : 

Lbs.  Protein  Carbohydrates  Fat 

Timothy  hay   12  .336  5.21  .168 

Corn   silage    36  .345  5.15  .252 

Corn    5  .395  3.33  .215 

Oats   4  .428  2.01  .152 

Nutrients  provided 1.504  15.70  .787 

Nutrients  required 2.245  14.55  .67 

It  will  be  noted  from  the  above  example  that,  although  the 
regulation  amounts  of  hay,  silage  and  grain  have  been  fed,  and 
that  carbohydrates  and  fat  amounts  are  well  provided,  pro- 
tein is  0.74  pound  short.  This  ration  is  balanced  in  respect  to 
roughage  to  cow  and  grain  to  milk,  but  far  from  it  in  the  more 
vital  part,  digestible  nutrients,  especially  protein.  Reference 
to  table  of  analysis  shows  that  cottonseed  meal,  linseed  oil  meal, 
gluten  feed  and  bran  are  richer  in  protein  than  corn  or  oats. 
To  correct  the  balance  of  nutrients  and  to  keep  the  number  of 
pounds  the  same,  suppose  we  try  the  following: 


ADJUSTING  THE  RATION  237 

Lbs.  Protein  Carbohydrates  Fat 

Timothy  hay    12  .336  5.21  .168 

Corn    silage    36  .345  5.15  .252 

Corn    4  .316  2.67  .172 

Oats     3  .321  1.51  .114 

Cottonseed  meal   2  .752  .43  .192 

Nutrients  provided 2.070  14.97  .898 

Nutrients  required 2.245  14.55  .67 

In  this  the  requirements  are  more  nearly  approached,  but 
the  shortage  in  protein  is  still  too  great. 

If  we  shift  the  grain  slightly  to  contain  3  pounds  corn,  3 
pounds  oats  and  3  pounds  cottonseed  meal  we  have: 

Lbs.  Protein  Carbohydrates  Fat 

Timothy  hay   12                 .336                 5.21  .168 

Corn   silage .   36  .345                 5.15  .252 

Corn    3                 .237                 2.01  .129 

Oats  3                 .321                  1.51  .114 

Cottonseed  meal   3  1.128                   .64  .288 

Nutrients  provided 2.367  14.52  .952 

Nutrients  required 2.245  14.55  .67 

In  this  case  all  three  of  the  balances  have  been  met  very 
satisfactorily.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  balance  of  the  nutrients 
is  almost  perfect.  No  more  feed  is  consumed  in  this  case,  but 
more  milk  would  be  produced  and  a  better  physical  condition 
of  the  cow  maintained. 

A  very  material  amount  of  the  balancing  may  often  be 
effected  by  means  of  the  roughage,  by  the  use  of  alfalfa  or 
clover  hay.     Thus  we  may  feed  a  ration  as  follows: 


Lbs. 

Red  clover  hay 12 

Corn  silage 36 

Corn 5 

Oats     4 

Nutrients  provided 

Nutrients  required 


Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

.853 

4.54 

.216 

.345 

5.15 

.252 

.395 

3.33 

.215 

.428 

2.01 

.152 

2.020 

15.03 

.835 

2.245 

14.55 

.67 

238  WINTER  FEEDING  OF  DAIRY  COWS 

In  this  ration  the  addition  of  clover  has  nearly  balanced  it. 
It  is,  however,  ^4  pound  short  in  protein,  and  V2  pound  over 
in  carbohydrates. 

In  the  past,  wheat  bran  has  been  fed  largely  for  milk  pro- 
duction, but  while  a  little  is  good  for  the  stock  more  nutriment 
can  usually  be  obtained  for  the  money  by  purchasing,  instead, 
some  of  the  grains  richer  in  protein  and  more  digestible.  Sup- 
pose we  try: 

Lbs.  Protein  Carbohydrates  Fat 

Clover  hay   12                 .852                 4.54  .216 

Corn    silage    36                  .345                  5.15  .252 

Corn    4                 .316                 2.67  .172 

Oats     4                  .428                  2.01  .152 

Linseed   oil   meal    1                  .302                    .32  .069 

Nutrients    provided    2.243  14.69  .861 

Nutrients  required   2.245  14.55  .67 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  simple  replacement  of  1  pound 
corn  with  1  of  linseed  meal  brought  the  protein  up  in  amount 
to  the  point  of  requirement  and  that  no  more  total  feed  was 
given  by  the  change.  This  last  ration  would  be  a  very  good  one 
indeed  for  a  1150-pound  cow  yielding  26  pounds  of  milk  testing 
4.2  per  cent  fat,  daily,  and  has  the  advantage  over  the  other 
balanced  ration,  both  in  physiological  effect  on  the  cow  and  of 
having  been  produced  more  largely  on  the  farm,  a  less  amount 
having  been  purchased. 

Combinations  almost  without  number  might  be  made,  but 
the  foregoing  will  sufficiently  illustrate  the  necessity  and  the 
method  of  ration  balancing. 

It  is  not  necessary  nor  advisable  that  each  grain  be  weighed 
out  separately  for  each.  cow.  Such  would  entail  altogether  too 
much  work  and  too  much  disturbance  of  the  cows  as  Avell.  It  is 
not  even  necessary  to  make  up  a  separate  mixture  for  each  cow. 

A  good  mixture  made  of  three  or  more  grains  may  be  made 
up  to  serve  as  a  complement  to  the  hay  fed,  and  from  this  grain 
all  the  cows  in  any  herd  may  be  fed  very  accurately  by  increas- 
ing or  decreasing  the  amount  of  grain  and  hay  given. 


A  GENERAL  RULE  239 

A  General  Rule. — Except  when  a  very  large  amount  of 
milk  or  a  very  rich  milk  in  quite  liberal  quantity  is  to  be  pro- 
vided for  the  following  general  rule  will  provide  an  approx- 
imately balanced  ration.  The  rule  is :  "  Feed  2  pounds  of  hay, 
or  1  pound  of  hay  and  3  pounds  of  silage,  or  1  pound  of  hay  and 
IY2  of  fodder  per  hundredweight  of  cow.  Then  make  up  a  mix- 
ture of  three  or  more  grains  in  such  proportion  as  to  contain 
about  16  per  cent  digestible  protein  if  timothy  or  wild  hay  is  to 
be  fed,  or  about  13  per  cent  digestible  protein  if  clover-timothy 
mixture  hay  is  to  be  fed,  or  about  11  per  cent  digestible  protein  if 
clover  hay  is  to  be  fed,  or  about  9  per  cent  of  digestible  protein  if 
alfalfa  hay  is  to  be  fed;  and  then  feed  of  the  grain  mixture  1 
pound  for  every  2^/o  to  3  pounds  of  milk^  if  Jersey  or  Guernsey 
cows,  or  1  pound  to  3  pounds  of  milk  if  Shorthorn  grade,  or 
1  pound  to  3  or  31/-)  pounds  if  Holstein."* 

As  an  example,  suppose  grade  Shorthorns  or  Skorthom-Hol- 
stein  cows  are  to  be  fed  and  the  hay  at  hand  is  a  mixture  of 
wild  grasses  and  timothy.  The  hay  and  silage  or  hay  and  fodder 
would  then  be  fed  as  already  mentioned  and  would  approx- 
imately sustain  the  animal  so  far  as  maintenance  requirements 
are  concerned.  To  provide  such  a  herd  with  grain  we  may 
start  with  corn,  oats,  or  barley  and  one  or  two  purchased  high 
protein  feeds — say  bran  and  cottonseed  meal.  The  mixture  to 
contain  between  15  and  16  per  cent  digestible  protein  would 
have  to  be  made  about  as  follows: 

Lbs.  Protein  Carbohydrates  ,      Fat 

Corn    4  .316                  2.07  .162 

Oats     2  .214                  1.01  .076 

Bran    ly2  .178                   .63  .037 

Cottonseed  meal    21/.  .840                    .54  .240 

10  1.548  4.85  .525 

Expressed  in  terms  of  per  cent  the  composition  of  this 
mixture  would  be,  protein  15.48  per  cent,  carbohydrates  48.5 
per  cent  and  fat  5.25  per  cent. 

In  this  the  protein  is  quite  up  to  the  amount  usually  needed 


240  WINTER  FEEDING  OF  DAIRY  COWS 

to  balance  the  nutrients  in  a  cow's  ration,   which  has  been 
based  on  non-proteinous  roughage. 

In  case  red  clover  or  alsike  clover  hay  is  available  to  feed 
with  the  silage  or  corn  fodder,  a  less  amount  of  protein  will  need 
be  purchased  because  so  largely  furnished  in  the  leguminous  hay. 
A  grain  supplement  for  such  would  be  made  up  as  follows : 

Lbs.  Protein  Carbohydrates  Fat 

Corn     C  .474                 4.00  .258 

Oats   2y,  .2G7                  1.26  .094 

Linseed  oil  meal 1%  .453                     .48  .103 

10  1.194  5.74  .455 

In  the  above  grain  mixture  it  will  be  noted  that  only  15  per 
cent  of  the  total  amount  of  grain  is  purchased,  all  the  rest  is 
home  grown  and  that  the  mixture  has  a  percentage  composition 
of  protein  11.94,  carbohydrates  57.4  and  fat  4.55.  This  mix- 
ture will  form  a  very  good  adjunct  to  the  clover  hay  fed.  There 
should  be  no  hesitancy,  however,  in  buying  high  protein  grain 
feeds,  since  the  purchase  of  such  high  protein  feed  may  well  be 
considered  a  double  purchase,  in  that  protein  is  first  obtained 
for  the  cow's  ration  and  that,  following,  the  manure  is  made 
richer  in  nitrogen  for  the  fertilization  of  the  fields. 

A  single  caution  in  the  use  of  corn  meal  is  that  it  should  not 
be  fed  to  a  milch  cow  in  amounts  greater  than  about  one-half 
pound  per  hundredweight  of  cow  per  day.  A  1200-pound  cow 
may  safely  be  allowed  to  consume  6  pounds  of  corn  meal  per 
day,  an  800-pound  cow  4  pounds.  If  used  more  freely  there 
is  danger  of  a  fatty  deposit  in  the  os  resulting  in  sterility.  It 
is  also  inadvisable  to  feed  cottonseed  meal  in  quantities  greater 
than  3  pounds  a  day  to  a  cow  as  a  steady  ration. 

Feed  During  Heavy  Yield. — In  all  the  breeds  having  the 
most  pronounced  dairy  type  and  temperament,  there  are  cows 
which,  when  fresh,  will  yield  considerably  more  milk  than  can 
be  supported  by  the  amount  of  feed  that  the  cow  can  possibly 
digest  and  assimilate.  All  of  the  substances  contained  in  that 
amount  of  milk  given  in  excess  of  that  supplied  directly  by  the 
daily  ration,  is  obtained  from  the  cow's  own  body,  by  a  process 
of  absorption.     It  is  natural  for  cows  to  flesh  up  while  carrying 


FEED  DURING  HEAVY  YIELD  241 

the  young,  and  to  "  milk  down  "  after  calving.  This  fact  now 
is  made  use  of  in  the  making  of  large  milk  records. 

The  question  naturally  arises,  "  What  should  be  the  nature 
of  the  ration  fed  during  this  period  of  losing  weight  %  Should 
it  be  a  balanced  ration  to  the  limit  of  the  cow's  ability  to  eat 
feed,  and  thereby  force  her  to  extract  from  her  tissue  a  balanced 
ration  for  the  remainder  of  the  milk,  or  should  the  ration 
contain  practically  enough  protein  to  sustain  the  full  flow  and 
thereby  permit  the  cow's  vital  tissue  to  remain  unimpaired  while 
forcing  her  to  use  up  her  body  fat  only  to  provide  the 
deficiency  ?  " 

The  question  has  never  been  closely  studied  experimentally, 
but  the  practice  of  the  men  who  are  now  making  the  large 
records  have  very  generally  adopted  the  latter  method. 

An  abundance  of  protein  in  an  easily  digested  and  palatable 
form  stimulates  milk  production  and,  what  is  probably  of  equal 
importance,  leaves  the  vital  organs  and  tissues  of  the  cow  in 
good  repair  after  the  yield  has  declined  to  a  point  where  the  cow 
can  sustain  the  flow  by  daily  consumption  of  feed. 

An  example  to  illustrate :  Let  us  assume  a  1400-pound  Hol- 
stein-Friesian  cow  in  good  condition.  The  matter  may  be  illus- 
trated by  figure  76.  Let  O  indicate  time  of  calving;  the 
vertical  line  amount  in  pounds  and  the  horizontal  line  time  in 
weeks ;  the  solid  curved  line  the  milk  amount  and  the  dotted  line 
the  feed  amount. 

A  week  or  more  before  the  cow  is  due  to  calve  the  heavy 
grain  should  be  withheld  from  the  cow,  she  being  fed  on  suc- 
culent roughage  such  as  silage  and  roots  with  a  little  hay  and 
just  prior  to  parturition  all  feed  should  be  withheld,  but  water 
provided  in  abundance  and  often. 

After  calving  she  should  not  be  crowded  with  feed  to  force 
the  milk,  but  rather  the  cow  should  be  allowed  to  set  the  pace  in 
flow  while  the  feed  is  carefully  raised  in  amount,  following,  as 
it  were,  the  lead  of  the  milk. 

If  in  our  example  (Fig.  76)  the  cow  at  the  end  of  three  weeks 
reached  a  flow  of  90  pounds  of  4.0  per  cent  milk,  A-C,  and  is 
able  to  consume  feed  for  the  support  of  only  65  pounds  of  milk, 
A-B,  she  will  have  to  make  up  the  deficiency,  B-C,  25  pounds, 


FEED  DURING  HEAVY  YIELD  243 

from  her  own  body.  Up  to  this  point  and  continuing,  the  feed 
supplied  should  contain  liberal  quantities  of  protein,  enough 
to  meet  the  protein  requirement,  if  possible.  The  nutritive 
ratio  of  the  total  ration  at  A  B  C  would  be  about  1 :  5.0,  at 
D  E  F,  1 :  5.5  and  at  G  II  I,  1 :  6.0. 

As  the  milk  flow  naturally  declines  the  proportion  of  protein 
to  carbohydrates  should  widen  to  reach  a  balanced  form  at  as 
early  a  period  as  possible.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  over- 
feed in  protein,  as  it  is  liable  to  bring  on  a  rheumatic  condition, 
but  so  long  as  all  the  protein  feed  is  needed  and  the  whole  ration 
kept  as  cooling  in  nature  as  possible  there  is  little  or  no  danger 
of  "  burning  out." 

Later  in  the  lactation  period,  when  the  milk-line  falls  the 
value  of  about  one  pound  of  grain  below  the  feed-line,  the  grain 
should  be  cut  down  to  agree,  yet  to  remain  a  little  above,  to  sup- 
port the  flow  instead  of  dragging  it  downwards,  as  would  be  the 
case  if  the  feed-line  fell  below  the  milk-line. 

The  competent  herdsman  will  study  carefully  each  cow  that 
he  may  provide  her  not  simply  with  feed  nutrients,  but  also  in 
the  form  most  pleasing  to  the  particular  cow.  Some  cows  dis- 
like cottonseed  meal,  but  will  take  linseed  oil  meal  with  zest, 
some  prefer  less  silage  and  more  hay ;  some  crave  wheat  bran,  or 
some  form  of  sugar  feed  or  roots.  Each  cow  has  a  favorite 
without  which  she  will  not  take  the  maximum  of  feed.  They 
should  be  studied  separately  and  humored. 

Roots  such  as  mangles  and  rutabagas  have  been  fed  for 
many  years  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  but  are  only  recently 
coming  to  form  a  part  of  the  cow's  ration  systematically,  and 
in  the  place  of  some  grain  rather  than  as  a  competitor  of  corn 
silage.  A  field,  planted  to  corn  where  corn  grows  even  reason- 
ably well,  will  produce  more  feed  per  acre,  and  per  dollar  cost 
of  growing,  than  if  planted  to  roots,  but  either  mangles  or  ruta- 
bagas compete  successfully  with  either  oats  or  barley  as  milk 
producers.  Moreover,  the  tender  succulent  condition  of  the 
feed  in  roots  renders  them  more  easily  masticated  and  digested 
than  hay,  in  fact  equal  to  good  grain.  Roots  and  potatoes  may 
then  be  systematically  substituted  for  a  part  of  the  grain  ration 
called  for  by  any  cow  giving  milk.     In  practice  one-half  the 


244  WINTER  FEEDING  OF  DAIRY  COWS 

grain  may  be  withheld  and  roots  substituted  at  the  rate  of  11 
pounds  of  mangles,  9  pounds  of  rutabagas  or  5  pounds  of  pota- 
toes to  replace  1  pound  of  grain. 

If  a  cow  is  yielding  40  pounds  of  3.8  per  cent  milk  she  may 
be  fed  hay  and  silage  according  to  her  weight.  Then  instead 
of  feeding  (40 -i- 3  =  13)  13  pounds  of  grain,  6i/2  pounds  of 
grain  may  be  fed  and  70  pounds  of  mangles  or  60  pounds  of  ruta- 
bagas, or  33  pounds  of  potatoes,  substituted  in  place  of  the 
remaining  grain. 

Order  of  Feeding. — It  is  natural  for  all  animals  to  be  more 
or  less  nervous  or  even  irritable  when  hungry.  It  is  at  such 
times  that  the  milkers  are  most  likely  to  get  into  trouble  with 
the  cows.  It  is  desirable,  therefore,  to  feed  the  cow  her  grain 
first  and  to  milk  while  she  is  eating.  Hay  should  be  fed  after 
milking  because  so  often  dusty,  and  silage  and  roots  after  milking 
because  of  their  odor. 

Cows  need  be  fed  but  twice  a  day,  the  total  amount  of  hay, 
silage  and  grain  being  divided  equally  between  the  morning  and 
evening  meals. 

The  balancing  of  the  nutrients  of  a  cow's  ration  is  not  now  a 
difficult  task  and  it  is  no  longer  a  question  that  cows  consistently 
fed  approximately  balanced  rations  will  remain  in  better  phys- 
ical condition,  drop  stronger  calves  and  yield  more  milk  at  less 
cost  than  cows  not  so  fed. 

The  kindly  and  regular  care  and  comfort  given  the  cows  has 
nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  much  to  do  with  profitable  returns  as  has 
the  balancing  of  the  ration.  The  cow  has  been  said  to  be  "  a 
profitable  recipient  of  affection." 

A  silo  is  an  immense  barrel  into  which  green  feed,  like  corn, 
is  cut  to  be  used  as  feed  for  livestock. 

The  advantage  of  the  silo  in  American  agriculture  may  be 
briefly  summarized  as  follows: 

1.  Silage  keeps  young  stock  thrifty  and  growing  better  than 
dry  fodder. 

2.  It  produces  beef  more  cheaply  than  dry  hay. 

3.  It  enables  cows  to  produce  milk  and  butter  more  econom- 
ically. 


EFFECT  OF  SILAGE  ON  MILK  245 

4.  It  brings  them  out  in  the  spring  in  such  condition  that 
they  shed  their  winter  coats  and  commence  gaining  at  once. 

5.  The  silo  prevents  the  waste  of  the  corn  stalks  which  con- 
tain from  40  to  60  per  cent  of  the  total  feed  value  of  the  field 
of  corn. 

6.  And,  therefore,  a  larger  number  of  animals  may  be  kept 
on  a  given  amount  of  land. 

7.  The  silo  furnishes  the  most  economical  method  of  preserv- 
ing feed  for  the  hot,  dry  period  in  summer  when  pasture  is  short. 

8.  It  is  usually  preferable  to  a  full  soiling  system  for  summer 
feeding. 

JSTo  dairy  or  general  livestock  farm  is  properly  equipped  for 
economical  production  until  a  silo  of  some  sort  is  provided 
(Figs.  77,  78  and  79). 

The  kind  of  a  silo  is  not  essential,  but  rather  the  three 
points,  namely: 

First,  its  height  should  be  about  twice  as  great  as  its  diameter 
to  insure  sufficient  pressure  to  expel  the  air  from  the  cut  corn 
and  thus  reduce  the  spoiling. 

Second,  it  must  be  practically  air-tight  about  the  sides  and 
bottom  to  prevent  admission  of  air  which  will  cause  or  bring 
about  rotting  of  the  silage. 

Third,  it  must  be  made  strong  enough  to  withstand  a  heavy 
outward  pressure. 

The  wooden  stave  silo  has  the  advantage  of  producing  a 
very  sweet  silage  if  the  corn  is  at  all  right,  but  has  also  the  dis- 
advantage of  drying  out  quickly  when  empty,  with  liability  of 
collapsing. 

The  cement  block  or  monolith  silo  probably  does  not  pro- 
duce quite  so  sweet  a  flavored  silage  as  a  wooden  silo,  but  it  is 
more  permanent  if  well  reinforced.  And,  so  long  as  the  cows  do 
not  object  to  the  slightly  modified  flavor,  why  should  man  ? 

The  acid  from  corn  put  up  too  green  has  a  perceptible  effect 
on  cement  walls  and  foundations,  but  the  amount  generated  in 
silage  from  mature  corn  is  negligible  in  effect. 

Effect  of  Silage  on  Milk. — Milk  produced  by  cows  fed  even 
heavily  and  continuously  on  mature  corn  silage  will  not  be  less 
tasty  or  valuable  than  any  other  and  will  be  better  for  children 


PiO.  79. 

Fig.  77. — Silo,  clay  block,  hollow  wall,  erected  at  the  Agricultural  .School  Farm, 

Crookston,  Minn. 

Fiq.   78. — This    home-made,    plaster-lined    silo   cost   little   and    gave    perfect   satisfaction. 

(Woodland  Dairy  Farm.) 

Fia.  79. — Octagonal    barn    being  built    around  a    silo    made    by    nailing    2  x  4's    solidly 

together  flatwise  in  an  eight-sided  form.    (Owned  by  J.  H.  Nixon,  Nevis,  Minn.) 


QUESTIONS  247 

and  infants  for  the  reason  that  the  cows  are  in  better  physical 
condition.  If,  however,  the  feed  is  excessively  sour  from  being 
put  into  the  silo  too  green,  the  milk  will  not  have  the  rich,  full 
aroma  that  it  ordinarily  possesses.  Such  silage  should  be  fed 
in  lessened  amounts  with  more  hay. 

Cows'  teeth  will  not  be  affected  by  silage  if  it  has  been  made 
from  even  reasonably  mature  corn  and  fed  in  conjunction  with 
dry  hay  or  corn  fodder. 

Telling  a  cow's  age  by  the  number  of  rings  on  the  base  of 
her  horns  is  unreliable.  Well-fed  cows  show  little  or  none 
of  these.  These  waves  or  rings  are  caused  by  a  lowered  plane  of 
nutrition  probably  duo  to  a  lack  of  anti-scorbutic  vitamine. 
Growing  children  reveal  past  illness  by  weak  lines  in  their  teeth 
and  adults  by  thin  places  in  finger  and  toe  nails.  The  rings  at 
the  base  of  cows'  horns  are  the  result  of  poor  health,  not  age. 

Weed  seeds  present  in  hay  or  grain  fed  to  cows  are  passed 
unchanged,  unless  it  be  that  they  grow  a  little  better  after  the 
treatment,3  but  seeds  of  all  kinds  except  mature  clover  and 
alfalfa  are  practically  all  destroyed  by  being  put  into  a  silo.4 

/  QUESTIONS  / 

y  At  what  season  do  cows  naturally  yield  most  milk? 

2.  At  that  season   what  are  the  conditions  as  to    (a)    feed   supply,    (b) 

succulence  of  feed,    (c)   temperature,   (d)   proportion  nutrients  in  the 
feed  ?  * 

3.  Why  should  cows  be  made  to  freshen  in  the  fall,  as  a  general  rule? 

4.  Illustrate  on  the  board  how  one  cow  may  by  consuming  25  per  cent 

more  feed  have  100  per  cent  more  for  milk  formation. 

5.  How  may  common  hay  be  made  more  palatable? 
fi.  What  is  meant  by  succulence? 

7\./What  is  a  feed  nutrient? 
8.  What  is  a  ration? 


9.  What  is  a  balanced  ration' 

10.  What  is  meant  by  a  maintenance  rationV 

11.  As  the  fat  per  cent  increases  in  milk  how  do  the  protein  and. carbohy- 

drates vary? 

12.  What  is  the  particular  value  or  use  of  protein  in  feed?     Of  carbohy- 

drates?    Of  fat? 

3  Beach,  C.  L.     Vermont  Bui.  No.  138;  Oswald,  W.  L.     Minn,  work  in 
progress. 

4  Washburn,  R.  M.     Vermont  Bui.  No.  170. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

CALF  RAISING 

Nature's  system  in  the  matter  of  calf  raising  is  apparently 
that  the  calf  should  be  born  in  the  spring  time;  should  suckle 
its  dam  until  six  or  eight  months  old;  and  during  this  time 
gradually  work  onto'  grass  and  dry  feed.  This,  however,  is  en- 
tirely too  extravagant  for  the  present  conditions  of  life  in  the 
dairy  sections  of  the  country.  By  this  system  the  owner  of 
the  cow  realizes  an  income  on  his  investment  equal  only  to  the 
value  of  the  calf  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

Furthermore,  cows  as  now  developed  for  dairying  will  pro- 
duce from  two  to  ten  times  as  much  milk  as  needed  by  the  calf 
and  the  value  of  butter  fat  on  the  market  is  too  high  to  warrant 
its  being  fed  in  large  amounts  for  a  long  time  to  calves. 

Under  the  cheap  land  and  scarce  labor  conditions,  where 
beef  husbandry  is  preeminently  the  form  of  livestock  found  most 
profitable,  the  system  of  raising  the  calves  upon  their  dams  is 
unquestionably  correct.  Under  opposite  conditions,  namely, 
high-priced  land  and  more  abundant  labor,  it  is  unprofitable 
indeed  to  permit  the  calf  to  consume  whole  milk  for  a  period 
longer  than  is  really  necessary  to  get  it  well  started.  The  general 
livestock  and  grain  farms  of  the  country  will  therefore  present 
problems  varying  all  the  way  from  one  extreme  to  the  other. 

Veal  calves  are  often  produced  in  order  to  obviate  the  neces- 
sity of  milking  for  a  period  of  six  to  eight  weeks  during  the 
growth  of  the  calf.  While  this  system  has  the  advantages  of 
slightly  lessening  the  labor  on  the  farm,  the  disadvantages  are 
apparent  when  the  calf  is  removed.  Not  alone  has  the  calf  been 
consuming  30-cent  butter  fat  and  converting  it  into  10-cent  veal, 
but  there  is  in  nearly  all  cases  a  decided  falling  off  in  the  amount 
of  milk  which  the  mother  will  give  after  the  removal  of  the  calf. 

Cows  care  very  little  indeed  for  their  calves  at  the  time  of 
birth,  but  their  affection  increases  rapidly  as  they  are  permitted 
to  clean  them  off  and  especially  when  the  little  things  suckle  a  few 
248 


IMPORTANCE  OF  RAISING  CALVES  249 

times.  So  intense  does  the  mother  love  become  during  the 
period  of  veal  making,  that  at  the  end  of  six  or  eight  weeks,  when 
the  calf  is  finally  removed,  the  mother  not  infrequently  will 
hunt  for  her  calf,  bawl  about  and  hold  up  her  milk  until  going 
nearly  or  quite  dry.  If  the  cow  is  later  to  be  milked  it  will  be 
found  a  decided  detriment  to  allow  the  calf  so  long  a  period 
with  its  mother. 

Occasionally  a  cow  that  is  hard  to  milk  or  otherwise  dis- 
agreeable, may  be  turned  over  to  calves  and  suckled  by  them, 
one  after  another,  and  thus  be  made  to  return  good  value  during 
a  period  of  stress. 

The  Importance  of  Raising  Calves. — Many  times  the  ques- 
tion has  been  raised  whether  it  were  preferable  for  individual 
dairy  farmers  to  raise  their  own  calves  or  to  buy  "  springers  " 
when  fresh  cows  are  needed.  Obviously  someone  must  raise 
calves  if  the  number  of  cows  is  to  be  maintained.  The  economy 
of  the  practice  of  dairymen  living  near  cities,  producing  milk 
for  market  use,  in  purchasing  cows  as  needed  and  making  no 
attempts  at  raising  young  stock  will  not  be  questioned.  Farmers, 
on  the  other  hand,  who  keep  a  limited  number  of  cows  and  who 
have  large  quantities  of  hay  and  corn  fodder  for  consumption 
should  by  all  means  raise  their  own  young  stock  rather  than  to 
trust  to  the  market.  It  is  common  observation,  too,  that  the 
specialized  dairymen  near  the  cities  are  better  judges  of  cows 
than  are  most  farmers,  and  that  where  possible  it  is  desirable  that 
the  best  of  the  city  dairy  cows  be  bred  and  that  the  young  stock  be 
raised  on  the  farm  farther  back  from  the  cities.  Certain  it  is  that 
if  improvement  is  to  be  made  in  the  class  of  cows  kept,  calves 
must  be  reared  from  the  best  individual  cows. 

Fall  calves  have  the  advantage  over  those  born  in  the  spring. 
During  the  first  few  weeks  of  the  calf's  life  he  lives  almost 
wholly  upon  milk,  whether  there  be  blue  grass  or  snowdrifts 
just  outside  the  barn.  As  he  matures,  more  feed,  especially 
grain,  is  consumed.  All  this  can  take  place  in  the  winter  as 
well  as  in  the  summer.  The  October  or  November  calf  will,  by 
May,  be  old  enough  to  make  use  of  pasture  and  should  be  given 
a  moderate  amount  of  it,     The  autumn  calf  then  reaches  its 


250  CALF  RAISING 

first  period  of  dry  feed  without  milk  when  nearly  or  quite  a 
year  old.  The  spring-dropped  calf,  on  the  other  hand,  con- 
sumes its  milk  during  the  period  of  good  pasture  and  at  six  or 
eight  months  of  age,  when  it  would  normally  be  weaned  from 
milk,  finds  itself  confronted  with  winter  conditions  while  still 
too  young  to  withstand  them  well.  The  calf  dropped  in  the 
fall  is  usually  as  large  and  as  valuable  at  a  year  old  as  the  spring 
calf  at  a  year  and  a  half.  The  farmer  finds  more  time  to  care  for 
the  calf  in  winter  than  in  summer.  From  the  standpoint  of  the 
calf  as  well  as  that  of  the  profitableness  of  the  cow,  dairy  calves 
should  be  dropped  during  the  last  three  months  of  the  year. 

Removing  the  Calf  from  the  Mother — One  mistake  often 
made  is  in  allowing  the  calf  to  remain  too  long  with  the  mother. 
She  becomes  attached  to  it  and  it  becomes  accustomed  to  her, 
and  objects  to  learning  to  drink  from  a  pail.  Experience 
teaches  that  it  is  best  to  remove  the  calf  as  soon  as  it  has  been 
cleaned  off,  at  any  rate  not  allowing  it  to  suckle  more  than  once. 
When  the  cow  is  out  of  the  box  stall  for  water  the  calf  should  be 
removed  without  attracting  her  attention,  and  placed  in  dry  com- 
fortable quarters,  out  of  hearing  of  its  mother,  if  possible.  When 
the  cow  returns  to  the  stall  and  notices  the  absence  of  her  baby 
the  wise  dairyman  will  be  on  hand  with  a  palatable  mass  of  bran 
mash  or  steamed  oats,  and  ready  to  be  substituted  in  the  affections 
of  the  cow  for  the  little  one  that  has  been  lost.  This  transfer  of 
affection  is  easily  accomplished  at  that  time. 

Allow  the  Calf  to  Become  Hungry. — If  the  calf  has  been 
permitted  to  suckle  once  it  will  not  usually  be  sufficiently 
hungry  at  the  end  of  twelve  hours  to  learn  easily  how  to  drink. 
No  harm  whatever  will  come  to  it  if  twenty-four  hours  elapse 
before  its  first  meal  after  removal  from  the  mother.  When 
keenly  hungry  it  will  learn  very  readily.  From  one  to  three 
lessons  only  are  then  needed  to  teach  the  average  calf  the  art 
of  drinking  from  the  pail. 

First  Feeding. — The  first  milk  drunk  by  the  calf  from  the 
pail  should  be  a  portion  of  its  own  mother's  milk,  sweet,  warm, 
and  clean,  and  not  more  than  a  quart  in  quantity.  In  teaching 
the  calf  to  drink  the  feeder  should  remember  that  the  calf  is  a 


FIRST  FEEDING  251 

baby  and  cannot  be  anything  else  until  given  time  to  grow.  The 
ridiculous  struggles  occasionally  pictured  in  teaching  the  calf  to 
drink  exhibit  only  ignorance  on  the  part  of  the  man.  By  first 
backing  the  little  fellow  into  a  comer  and  then  locking  his  neck 
between  the  legs  of  the  feeder,  as  in  a  stanchion  (Fig.  80),  the 
pail  may  be  held  in  the  left  hand;  the  tips  of  the  fingers  on 
the  right  hand  moistened  with  milk  and  inserted  into  the  calf's 
mouth.  At  the  taste  of  the  milk  the  calf  will  commence  to 
suck.     Then  slowly  the  head  may  be  drawn  downward  until  the 


Fia.  80. — Inexpensive  calf  stanchion.     (Courtesy  Wisconsin  Station.) 

milk  is  reached.  The  calf  then  sucks  the  fingers,  drawing  the 
milk  between  them.  When  well  started  the  fingers  should  be 
slowly  withdrawn  while  the  right  thumb  is  held  merely  on  the 
top  of  the  nose.  To  be  sure,  the  calf's  head  may  fly  up  at  any 
instant  when  the  process  will  need  to  be  repeated.  An  intelli- 
gent calf,  keenly  hungry,  will  occasionally  learn  to  drink  with 
the  first  lesson  and  usually  with  the  second.  Almost,  never  will 
the  calf  have  to  be  shown  more  than  three  times  before  it  will 
proceed  to  drink  from  the  pail  unaided. 


252  CALF  RAISING 

Later  Feeding. — During  the  period  of  about  three  days, 
when  the  cow  is  yielding  colostrum  milk,  portions  of  such  should 
be  fed  to  the  calf,  the  quantity  naturally  varying  with  the  size 
and  strength  of  the  calf.  Xo  hard  and  fast  rule  can  be  laid 
down  in  this  any  more  than  in  any  other  phase  of  dealing  with 
live  animals.  It  is  a.  good  rule  to  start  out  giving  about  one  quart 
of  milk  at  a  feeding.  During  the  first  week  it  is  often  wise  to 
feed  the  calf  three  times  a  day,  especially  if  it  is  weakly  and  un- 


Fig.  81. — Tender  but  healthy.  Needs  only  good  care  and  feed. 

able  to  consume  a  large  quantity.  After  a  week  or  ten  days  two 
feeds  a  day  will  be  found  quite  as  satisfactory  as  three. 

The  milk  fed  must  be  sweet,  warm  and  from  a  clean  pail, 
and  not  too  great  in  quantity,  otherwise  digestive  disturbances 
are  liable  to  occur,  resulting  in  diarrhea,  loss  of  strength  and 
if  not  checked  soon,  the  calf  may  either  die  outright,  or  be 
stunted  so  that  many  months  will  be  required  for  his  recovery. 

The  quantity  of  milk  which  should  be  given  the  calf  will 
after  three  or  four  days  be  not  far  from  one  pound  per  day  for 


THE  GRAIN  FED  253 

every  eight  or  ten  pounds  that  the  calf  weighs.  A  calf  weigh- 
ing sixty  pounds  then  would  receive  six  to  eight  pounds  of  milk 
per  twenty-four  hours,  divided  into  two  or  three  feedings.  For 
this  purpose  measuring  is  sufficiently  accurate,  considering  a 
quart  to  weigh  two  pounds.  The  first  milk  given  should  be 
whole  milk,  first  from  its  own  mother  and  later  from  the  herd, 
provided,  however,  such  milk  does  not  carry  more  than  3^  to 
4  per  cent  fat.  Rich  milk  is  not  good  for  calves.  It  is  liable 
to  bring  on  diarrhea.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  thin, 
tender  little  calves  often  born  in  Jersey  and  Guernsey  herds. 
Where  the  herd  milk  is  of  Jersey  or  Guernsey  cows  it  is  prefer- 
able that  a  little  sweet  skim  milk  should  be  added  to  the  whole 
milk,  even  from  the  start,  sufficient  to  bring  the  fat  content 
down  to  at  least  4  per  cent,  and  preferably  down  to  3  per  cent. 
On  such  milk  the  calf  then  may  be  fed,  in  quantity  according 
to  its  weight,  for  two  to  three  weeks,  depending  upon  its  strength. 
At  the  end  of  this  period  it  is  usually  found  possible  to  lessen 
the  amount  of  whole  milk  used,  and  to>  increase  the  amount  of 
skim  milk  used,  keeping  the  total  of  the  two  the  same,  however, 
and  thus  withdrawing  the  whole  milk  largely  from  the  ration. 
A  period  of  at  least  a  week  should  be  used  in  making  the 
transition.  A  common  error  at  this  point  is  to  feel  that  since 
skim  milk  is  not  as  rich  as  whole  milk  a  larger  quantity  should 
therefore  be  given.  This  is  emphatically  not  true.  The  sub 
stance  withheld  in  skim  milk  feeding  is  fat  and  this  cannot  be 
replaced  by  feeding  more  of  the  skim  milk  which  does  not 
contain  fat.  The  quantity  of  skim  milk  fed  per  day  should  not 
be  greater  than  would  readily  be  consumed  if  the  fat  had  been 
left  in  it,  but  the  deficiency  should  be  made  up  by  substituting 
grain  (Figs.  82  and  83). 

The  Fat  Soluble  A  vitamine,  always  so  richly  present  in  milk 
fat,  is  what  puts  the  "bloom"  on  the  calf.  Dairy  calves  need 
some  whole  milk  until  three  months  old  if  best  growth  and  de- 
velopment are  to  be  secured.  A  little  whole  milk,  water,  and 
grain  will  build  better  calves  than  large  quantities  of  skim  milk. 
The  dairy  calf  should  gain  from  1  to  iy2  pounds  per  day. 

The  Grain.     A  portion  of  the  cow's  grain  mixture,  if  rightly 


254 


CALF  RAISING 


made,  will  suffice  for  the  calves.  It  should  consist  of  corn, 
oats  or  barley,  middlings  or  fine  bran,  and  oil  meal.  Calves 
will  learn,  even  at  two  weeks  of  age,  to  nibble  of  the  mixture, 
and  at  three  weeks  will  regularly  consume  considerable  quan- 
tities. Grain  should  thereafter  be  fed  in  quantities  sufficient 
to  keep  the  young  animals  growing  thriftily.     At  no   other 


■ET,Wi'"'h*« 


mm 


Fig.   82. — Stanchions  for  calves  to  pre\ 


and  to  prevent  all  from  sucking  one  another. 


the  food  of  the  weaker 


Fig.  83. — A  group  of  skim-milk  calves.    Note  thriftv  condition.     (Courtesv  of 
G.  W.  Gehrand.) 

time  in  the  animal's  life  will  so  small  a  quantity  of  grain  be  of 
such  great  benefit. 

Hay  for  Calves. — It  is  surprising  to  note  how  young  calves 
will  begin  regularly  to  eat  quantities  of  hay,  provided  it  is 
tender  and  otherwise  palatable.  At  three  weeks  of  age  they 
begin  to  eat  a  few  straws  at  a  time  and  increase  until  liberal 
quantities  are  regularly  consumed.  It  is  highly  to  be  recom- 
mended also  that  calves  intended  for  dairy  purpose  be  encour- 


RAISING  CALVES  WITHOUT  MILK  255 

aged  to  eat  hay  as  young  and  as  freely  as  possible.  By  consum- 
ing hay  thus  freely  less  grain  is  necessary  for  their  raising,  and 
they  are  likewise  to  a  considerable  extent  developed  while  young 
in  their  capacity  to  handle  roughage.  The  hay  best  adapted 
to  the  use  of  young  calves  is  second  cut  clover,  or,  if  this  is  not 
obtainable,  then  something  approaching  that  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible in  character.  Second  cut  meadow  hay  (rowen)  is  very  good 
indeed,  because  so  tender  and  easily  masticated. 

By  rationally  combining  skim  milk,  ordinary  grains  and 
tender  hay,  calves  are  regularly  raised  on  the  best  dairy  farms 
at  little  expense  and  made  to  be  perfect  beauties  while  young 
and  valuable  when  older. 

Order  of  Feeding. — Warm  skim  milk,  free  from  excessive 
foam,  is  a  highly  nutritious  feed  for  young  animals  of  all  kinds, 
but  it  is  delicate  and  easily  made  unfit  if  fed  in  a  dirty  germ- 
laden  pail,  or  if  fed  just  after  or  immediately  before  the  calf 
has  eaten  silage.  The  acidity  of  the  silage  seems  to  sour  the 
milk  before  it  can  have  time  to  digest.  Calves  so  fed  often 
stand  for  some  time  belching  gas  and  showing  signs  of  distress. 
A  change  in  the  order  of  feeding  to  grain,  milk,  hay  and  then 
silage  has  brought  relief  and  decidedly  improved  the  condition 
of  the  calves  which  had  been  so  fed. 

Pasture  for  calves  is  of  doubtful  value.  While  small 
amounts  of  grass  will  be  consumed  by  the  calf  born  in  autumn 
or  winter  it  should  not  be  required  to  consume  large  quantities 
or  to  depend  very  largely  upon  grass  for  its  sustenance.  The 
heat  of  an  unshaded  yard  may  easily  undo  the  beneficial  effects 
to  be  secured  from  the  outside  run  and  if  the  calves  are  forced 
to  live  out  of  doors  during  the  latter  portion  of  the  summer, 
when  the  grass  is  more  or  less  tough  and  dry,  and  flies  numer- 
ous, there  will  usually  be  a  period  of  stagnation  in  growth  when 
no  advancement  is  made.  Under  such  circumstances  the  calves 
would  be  much  better  off  eating  their  few  pounds  of  hay,  a  little 
grain,  water,  and  skim  milk  if  available,  in  the  barn.  Calves 
should  gain  three-fourths  to  one  and  one-half  pounds  per  day 
when  three  to  eight  months  old. 

Raising  Calves  Without  Milk. — In  regions  which  regu- 
larly ship  whole  milk  to  cities  the  question  of  how  to  raise  the 


256  CALF  RAISING 

calves  without  holding  back  so  large  a  quantity  of  milk  is  a 
vital  one.  To  raise  calves  on  milk  worth  $1.75  a  hundred 
pounds  makes  him  a  rather  expensive  animal,  while  to  raise  no 
calves  and  to  trust  to  the  open  market  to  replace  the  dairy  is  un- 
satisfactory from  the  standpoint  of  character  or  efficiency  of  the 
animal  to  be  secured  and  the  likelihood  of  introducing  disease. 

For  many  years  various  concoctions  have  been  tried  and  a 
few  recommended  as  substitutes  for  milk  in  calf  feeding.  To 
make  a  long  story  short,  the  result  of  the  many  trials  is  that 
calves  can  be  successfully  reared  upon  a  very  small  quantity  of 
milk  used  in  conjunction  with  an  adequate  amount  of  mixed 
grains,  but  that  milk  in  some  amount  is  practically  essential. 
It  is  a  settled  practice  in  the  milk-selling  regions,  to  withhold 
a  small  amount  of  milk  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  cream  for 
the  table  and  sweet  milk  for  the  calves.  A  quart  of  whole  milk 
is  then  diluted  with  water  and  fed,  care  being  taken  that  the 
grain  supply  is  ample  and  adapted  to  the  calf's  age. 

Calf  Meals. — Various  compounds  of  cereals  under  a  variety 
of  names  have  for  many  years  been  advertised,  a  few  for  a 
century  or  more.  Careful  trials  of  the  matter  have  proved  that 
good  calves  may  be  raised  on  a  very  small  amount  of  whole 
milk  (60  to  90  pounds)  and  a  moderate  amount  of  skim  milk 
(350  to  400  pounds)  by  the  use  of  a  calf  meal.  A  very  satis- 
factory calf  meal  may  be  made,  according  to  Lindsey,  as  follows : 

Ingredients  of  Calf  Meal 
22       pounds  ground   oat  flakes 

10  pounds    ground    flaxseed   meal 
5       pounds  ground  flour  middlings 

11  pounds   finely  ground  corn  meal 
\yz  pounds  prepared  blood  flour 

y3  pound  salt 
Cost,  about  3  cents  per  pound. 
To  use  this  meal  with  success  essentially  the  following 
method  should  be  followed :  The  calf  should  be  removed  from 
its  mother  and  taught  to  drink  in  the  manner  already  described. 
At  eight  to  twelve  days  of  age  sweet  warm  skim  milk  should  be 
added  to  the  calf's  mess,  a  little  at  a  time  and  taking  the  place 
of  the  same  quantity  of  whole  milk.  The  second  day  of  change 
a  little  more  skim  and  a  little  less  whole  milk  is  fed ;  thus  the 


CALF  SCOURS  257 

change  is  made  to  cover  a  week  or  ten  days.  By  the  time  the 
milk  fed  is  about  half  and  half,  skim  and  whole  milk,  a  few 
ounces  of  the  calf  meal  mixture  should  be  stirred  into  the  milk. 
This  can  best  be  done  by  making  up  the  meal  into  a  paste  in  cold 
water  and  then  adding  to  the  milk.  The  meal  is  gradually  in- 
creased as  the  whole  milk  is  decreased  until  when  the  calf  is  about 
three  weeks  old  it  is  living  on  skim  milk  and  calf  meal.  This  diet 
of  skim  milk  and  meal  gruel  should  continue  until  the  calf  is 
about  three  months  old,  when  milk  may  be  entirely  withheld. 

The  calf  will  already  have  learned  to  eat  tender  hay  and 
small  amounts  of  ordinary  grain  so  that  by  the  time  the  calf  is 
six  months  old  the  feeding  of  the  calf  meal  may  be  stopped. 
From  this  time  forward  any  thrifty  calf  will  do  well  on  tender 
hay,  common  grain  mixtures  and  water. 

Whey  for  Calves. — In  regions  where  cheese  is  largely  made 
the  problem  of  raising  calves  is  one  of  successfully  combining 
whey  with  grain  in  such  fashion  as  to  produce  thrifty  stock.  In 
the  process  of  cheese  making  practically  all  of  the  fat  and  casein 
is  removed  from  the  milk.  The  substances  remaining  are 
sugar,  albumen,  a  very  little  casein  and  a  little  fat  and  ash.  The 
total  solid  content  of  whey  is  nearly  one-half  that  of  whole  milk 
and  about  two-thirds  that  of  skim  milk.  One  hundred  pounds 
of  whey  ordinarily  carries  from  5l/o  to  6  pounds  of  solid  feed, 
while  skim  milk  has  only  about  9  pounds.  The  problem  of 
raising  calves  in  cheese  districts  has  been  solved  in  very  much 
the  same  way  as  in  whole  milk  shipping  regions,  namely,  the 
combination  of  a  small  amount  of  milk  with  a  generous  amount 
of  calf  meals  and  common  grains. 

Whey  fed  clean  and  sweet  is  better  than  water,  but  if  allowed 
to  become  contaminated  in  a  dirty  whey  tank  or  barrel  it  may 
cause  scours  and  be  worse  than  ho  whey.  Whey  is  worth  most 
when  mixed  with  grains  and  fed  to  swine. 

Sweet  whey  combined  with  a  calf  meal  will  sustain  a  calf 
at  an  early  age,  two  to  three  months,  and  may  be  continued  until 
the  calf  is  six  or  nine  months  old  with  profit. 

Calf  Scours. — The  most  common  form  of  calf  scours  is 
caused  by  any  sort  of  interference  with  the  process  of  digestion. 
Tn  many  places  the  most  frequent  cause  is  over-feeding  on  milk 
17 


258  CALF  RAISING 

which  is  neither  sweet  nor  sour,  but  in  that  dangerous  half- 
changed  condition.  In  addition  to  this  many  farmers  have 
been  guilty  of  feeding  tender  young  calves  out  of  pails  so  dirty 
as  to  be  absolutely  unlit  to  bear  feed  to  any  animal.  The  germs 
of  decomposition  growing  continually  in  the  crevices,  and  on 
the  side,  are  distributed  through  the  fresh  milk  supply  and  in- 
troduced into  the  calf,  where  they  continue  to  grow  and  cause 
various  sorts  of  evil  conditions.  Worse  even  than  this  is  the 
practice  of  pouring  the  milk  into  a  tub  or  half  barrel  in  the 
yard,  permitting  the  calves  in  the  yard  to  jam  their  way  in  and 
drink  at  will.  The  strongest  secure  too  much  and  the  weakest 
not  enough,  and  all  get  dirty  stuff  and  suffer. 

For  many  years  farmers  have  had  difficulty  in  raising  calves 
on  skim  milk  as  it  has  been  returned  from  the  creamery.  This 
fact  has  been  one  of  the  reasons  why  the  introducing  of  hand 
separators  has  been  so  rapid  and  thorough  within  the  past  ten 
years.  AVith  the  strict  enforcement  of  the  law  requiring  the 
pasteurization  of  skim  milk  to  prevent  the  spreading  of  tuber- 
culosis it  was  found  that  very  good  calves  indeed  could  be  raised 
on  the  milk  returned  from  the  creamery.  A  few  who  have  had 
trying  experiences  with  skim  milk  from  the  creamery  have 
settled  upon  the  practice  of  permitting  the  milk  to  become  thor- 
oughly sour  before  feeding  it  to  the  calves.  Thus,  "  clab- 
berred "  sour  milk  has  been  successfully  fed  to  even  young 
calves  and  to  the  certain  knowledge  of  the  writer  produce  fine, 
thrifty  stock.  This  should  not  be  surprising,  however,  when 
we  remember  how  many  thousand  human  infants  are  now  being 
reared  upon  buttermilk,  beginning  even  at  the  age  of  two  weeks 
or  less  and  continuing  until  six  to  eight  months  of  age.  Cer- 
tain it  is  that  milk  fed  to  a  calf  should  be  either  thoroughly 
sweet  or  thoroughly  sour  and  in  the  same  condition  every  time. 
See  Chapter  XXII  for  discussion  of  treatment  of  scours. 

Blood  meal  has  been  found  highly  beneficial  in  correcting 
digestive  disturbance  in  calves.  A  tablespoonful  of  blood  flour, 
mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  milk,  fed  to  a  calf  with  diarrhea 
acts  as  a  corrective  in  such  disturbances  and  is  a  highly  nutri- 
tious feed  as  well. 

Raw  eggs  are  excellent  feed  for  a  young  calf  which  has 


YOUNG  CALVES  NEED  REST  259 

started  to  scour  from  some  fermentation  of  the  milk  it  has 
drunk.  Eggs  do  not  ferment  as  does  milk  because  they  contain 
no  sugar.  While  eggs  spoil  readily  enough,  the  germ  of  egg 
decomposition  is  not  the  same  as  those  germs  that  infest  the  in- 
testines of  calves ;  thus  eggs  are  often  a  safe  substitute  for  part  or 
all  of  the  milk  for  a  few  meals  for  calves  suffering  from  scours. 

Bone  meal  is  found  to  be  a  good  substance  to  mix  with  salt  for 
young  cattle.  Some  feeds  are  deficient  in  the  bone-forming  ele- 
ments. This  possible  deficiency  can  be  insured  against  by  the 
feeding  of  a  very  moderate  amount  of  bone  meal. 

It  has  been  shown  experimentally  that  an  addition  of  ash 
to  the  ration  of  groAving  animals  increases  the  size  and  the 
strength  of  the  bone.  An  excess  over  absolute  needs  does  no 
harm  even  if  continued  through  the  whole  growing  period. 

Water  should  be  available  to  growing  stock  at  all  times 
or  at  least  be  made  available  at  least  three  times  a  day. 

Young  Calves  Need  Rest — The  size  of  calf  pens  need 
not  be  greater  than  G  X  8  feet  in  which  not  to  exceed  three  calves 
should  be  kept.  Individual  pens  only  about  4  X  -A  feet  in  size 
are  preferable  for  very  young  calves,  especially  those  of  the  Jersey 
and  Guernsey  breeds.  A  young  calf  is  an  infant  and  requires 
much  rest.  If  placed  in  a  pen  where  there  are  several  older 
calves  he  is  jostled  about  until  thoroughly  fatigued.  Young 
calves  doing  very  poorly  under  such  conditions  often  pick  up 
rapidly  when  placed  in  small  individual  pens. 

The  floor  of  calf  pens  should  be  of  some  water-tight  mate- 
rial which  will  not  conduct  heat  readily.  A  cement  floor  is 
most  easily  cleaned,  yet  it  is  exceedingly  hard  on  the  young 
calf,  as  it  becomes  wet  so  quickly.  It  may  be  cold  unless  very 
heavily  bedded  or  insulated  as  described  in  Chapter  XXI. 
Tender  cow-babies  should  not  be  compelled  to  lie  where  their 
soft  warm  stomachs  may  be  chilled.  This  often  causes  diar- 
rhea which  results  in  increased  cost  in  raising  the  calf  and 
produces  an  animal  of  less  value.  If  a  cement  floor  is  used 
it  should  be  overlaid  with  plank,  cork-brick  or  creosoted  blocks, 
or  should  be  insulated  the  same  as  that  part  of  the  general 
stable  floor  upon  which  the  cows  must  stand  and  lie. 

Good  light,  and  free  circulation  of  air  are  so  desirable  in 


260  CALF  RAISING 

the  calf  pen  that  barns  being  constructed  should  take  this  class 
of  needs  well  into  account  and  locate  the  "  children's  "  room  on 
the  southeast  or  southwest  corner  of  the  barn. 

Sucking. — Practically  all  calves,  if  permitted,  will,  when 
through  drinking  their  milk,  turn  and  suckle  the  other  calves 
present.  The  practice  should  not  be  permitted  for  the  good 
of  either  calf.  Heifer  calves  thus  suckled  will  in  a  few  months 
develop  the  udder  abnormally  on  the  side  usually  massaged 
by  the  process.  Poorly  formed  udders  in  mature  cows  are 
occasionally  traceable  to  carelessness  in  this  regard  on  the  part 
of  the  manager.  Calves  frequently,  too,  form  the  habit  of 
consuming  the  urine  from  a  neighbor  calf,  which  practice  is  very 
detrimental  to  both.  This  is  one  reason  why  it  is  so  highly 
advisable  to  lock  the  calves  in  a  stanchion  before  feeding  and 
compel  them  to  remain  there  until  the  impulse  to  nurse  has 
left  them  (Fig.  82).    Rub  bran  on  the  nose  after  drinking. 

Open  vs.  Sucking  Pails  for  Calves. — The  theory  is  often 
expounded  that  calves  will  do  much  better  if  compelled  to  take 
more  time  in  the  drinking  of  their  milk.  To  this  end  various 
devices  resembling  cows'  udders  with  a  single  teat  below  have 
been  put  upon  the  market.  A  test  of  the  value  of  slow  versus 
fast  drinking  has  recently  been  made  with  the  evidence  favor- 
ing the  slow  consumption  of  the  milk.  Earlier  tests  and  prac- 
tice in  general  do  not  show  sufficient  difference  in  the  two 
methods  to  warrant  the  extra  cost  of  the  instrument  used  and 
the  extra  labor  in  keeping  it  clean.  Briefly,  then,  if  the  milk 
is  in  good  condition  and  fed  in  proper  amounts  and  in  the 
right  order,  the  rate  of  consumption  of  the  milk  will  be  found 
a  very  minor  matter. 

Dehorning  with  Caustic — Calves  at  birth  have  no  horns. 
The  organ  develops  first  on  the  skin  as  a  button,  loose  from  the 
skull,  later  attaches  to  the  skull  proper.  A  horn  may  be  killed 
while  still  a  mere  lump  in  the  skin  with  caustic  potash.  The 
hair  should  be  clipped  away  carefully  around  the  spot  to  be 
treated;  the  skin  thoroughly  moistened  and  rubbed  soft.  A 
stick  of  caustic  potash  may  then  be  touched  carefully  to  water 
and  rubbed  into  the  skin  over  the  embryo  horn.  Care  should 
be  taken  that  there  is  not  so  much  water  present  as  to  run 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  EARLY  FEEDING  261 

down  the  side  of  the  face.  This  will  burn  off  the  hair  and 
cause  sores.  When  the  scab  over  the  horn  falls  off  a  second 
application  will  usually  be  found  sufficient  to  entirely  prevent 
the  growth  of  the  horn.  Dehorning  with  caustic  should  be  done 
when  the  calf  is  but  two  to  three  days  old. 

Age  to  Separate  Calves. — -Well  fed  Jersey  and  Guernsey 
calves  have  been  known  to  breed  at  90  to  100  days  of  age.  Hol- 
steins  and  Ayrshires  reach  this  stage  of  development  at  from 
100  to  120  days.  Bull  calves  reach  a  similar  stage  of  develop- 
ment at  four  to  five  months  of  age.  The  dairyman  of  foresight 
then  will  separate  the  sexes  before  harm  occurs. 

Condition  of  Dairy  Calves. — While  the  consumption  of 
milk  containing  a  liberal  quantity  of  fat  will  cause  the  calves 
to  become  fat  enough  for  good  veal  at  six  to  eight  weeks  of  age, 
it  is  difficult  indeed  to  fatten  calves  on  skim  milk  and  grain. 
More  liberal  feeding  up  to  the  limit  of  their  ability  to  consume, 
results  more  in  a  rapid  growth  than  in  fattening.  Further- 
more, for  dairy  purposes  there  is  no  need  that  the  calves  be 
fattened,  and  there  is  danger  associated  with  the  condition. 
Calves  fed  too  much  grain,  especially  corn,  are  in  danger  of  form- 
ing the  fattening  habit,  which  may  detract  from  their  value  as 
dairy  cows  later,  and  if  continued  until  the  breeding  age,  the  fat 
condition  is  very  liable  indeed  to  cause  sterility,  or  inability  to 
breed.  The  consumption  of  more  hay  and  less  grain  in  the 
growing  heifer  tends  to  produce  an  efficient  dairy  worker  in 
after-life,  as  well  as  working  towards  economy  in  the  raising  of 
the  animal.  Grain  should  be  fed  in  amount  sufficient  only  to 
keep  the  animal  in  fair  flesh  and  growing  continually. 

The  influence  of  early  feeding  on  the  size  of  the  mature  cow 
has  long  been  suspected.  Best  experimental  evidence  has  been 
furnished  by  the  University  of  Missouri  in  which  it  is  clearly 
shown  that  if  a  cow  is  to  attain  her  greatest  stature  she  should 
be  liberally  fed  while  young  (Fig.  84).  In  fact  those  cows 
that  receive  very  liberal  rations  during  their  early  growing 
period  not  only  reach  their  growth  at  an  earlier  age  but  attain 
to  a  greater  size  than  those  which  have  been  more  scantily  fed 
during  the  first  two  and  a  half  years  of  their  lives.     Whether 


262 


CALF  RAISING 


heavier  cows  are  desirable  is  another  question.  The  practice 
nf  our  best  breeders  now  is  to  crowd  the  young  stock  with  an 
abundance  of  succulent  roughage,  adding  only  as  much  grain 
as  is  necessary  to  keep  them  in  good  condition.  It  is  also  shown 
that  with  strong  dairy  cows  fat  laid  on  in  the  early  months 
rapidly  disappears  upon  commencement  of  lactation. 


Fig.   84. — A  thrifty  Holstein  heifer,  developed  by  liberal  feeding. 

This  must  not  be  construed  as  advocating  over-fatness  in 
young  stock,  for  such  would  likely  impair  their  breeding  quali- 
ties. Dairy  young  stock  does  not,  however,  require  being  kept 
so  thin  in  flesh  as  has  been  recommended  and  practiced  by  many. 

The  age  to  breed  the  dairy  heifer  will  depend  somewhat 
upon  the  development  of  the  particular  heifer  in  question.     If 


COST  OF  RAISING  CALVES  263 

the  individual  is  well  grown  and  has  a  tendency  to  lay  on 
fat  she  should  be  bred  at  an  earlier  age  than  one  not  so  well 
grown  and  showing  less  tendency  to  flesh  formation.  The 
well  developed  Jersey  should  be  bred  to  drop  her  first,  calf 
when  she  is  not  more  than  twenty-six  months  of  age,  and  better 
twenty-four  rather  than  twenty-eight  months,  while  the  heifer 
of  retarded  growth  should  be  given  two  or  four  months  more 
time  in  which  to  reach  the  size  established  for  the  breed,  or 
twenty-six  to  thirty  months.  The  aim  should  be  to  put  the 
young  animals  off  the  boarder  and  onto  the  working  list  at  as 
early  an  age  as  their  physical  development  will  permit  without 
doing  permanent  harm.  If  bred  too  young  the  energies  of  the 
heifer  are  diverted  to  the  development  of  the  foetus  and  later  to 
milk  yielding,  with  the  result  of  retarding  growth,  sometimes 
amounting  to  actual  stunting. 

The  development  of  the  dairy  bull  is  not  essentially  differ- 
ent from  that  of  the  dairy  heifer  except  that  a  little  more  grain 
and  a  little  less  of  the  bulky  feeds  may  be  fed.  Over-fatness, 
however,  is  to  be  avoided  as  being,  first,  an  unnecessary  and 
expensive  condition,  and  second,  endangering  the  breeding 
power  of  the  animal.  Hay  and  skim  milk  may  form  the  major 
portion  of  the  ration,  with  grain  fed  as  a  conditioner.  A  large 
paunch  is  not  desirable  on  the  breeding  sire,  however,  and  may 
be  avoided  by  feeding  less  roughage  and  more  grain. 

Pasture  Necessary  for  Young  Stock. — Although  the  tender 
calf  needs  the  protection  of  the  stable  more  than  the  invigorat- 
ing effects  of  pasture,  the  yearling  should  certainly  be  forced  to 
live  upon  pasture.  Not  only  can  young  stock  of  this  age 
make  good  use  of  cheap  range,  but  if  they  are  to  develop  hardi- 
hood, good  health  and  vitality,  they  should  be  given  ample  pas- 
ture. One  disadvantage  found  in  the  soiling  system  of  cow  feed- 
ing is  that  it  does  not  provide  means  whereby  the  growing  heifer 
can  get  the  exercise  essential  to  strength  at  maturity. 

Cost  of  Raising  Calves. — This  question  has  been  studied  in 
several  states.  By  Trueman  of  Connecticut,  the  cost  is  fixed  at 
about  $66  for  a  two  year  old.  From  records  kept  for  117  calves 
in  Wisconsin,  Bennet  and  Cooper  conclude  as  follows : 


264  CALF  RAISING 

Cost  of  Raising  Dairy   Heifers  in  Wisconsin 

Cost  to  1  yr.  Ccst  to  2  yrs. 

Initial  cost  of  calf $  7.04  $  7.04 

Feed    24.67  40.83 

Labor   4.45  7.81 

Interest,  insurance,  upkeep,  etc   ....      6.36  13.73 

Gross  cost   $43.52  $69.41 

Credit  for  manure 3.00  8.00 

Net   cost    $39.52  $61.41 

The  cost  on  any  given  farm  will  vary  with  the  cheapness  of 
pasturage,  value  of  hay  on  the  farm  and  cost  of  labor,  whether 
done  by  a  high-priced  hired  man  or  by  a  child  in  the  home. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Is  "nature's  way"  of  raising  calves  sufficiently  economical  for  present 

conditions?     Why  not? 

2.  Figure  the  value  of  the  milk  consumed  by  the  next  veal  calf  produced 

on  your  farm.    What  costs  have  you  observed? 

3.  How  should  calves  be  raised? 

4.  Why  is  a  fall  calf  usually  superior  to  a  spring  calf? 

5.  Tell  how  to  steal  the  calf  from  its  mother. 

6.  How  should  the  calf  be  handled  during  the  first  24  hours  after  removal? 

7.  Tell  how  to  teach  a  young  calf  to  drink. 

8.  Tell  how  to  feed  the  calf  from  time  of  teaching  to  drink  until  three 

months  old. 

9.  How  fast  should  a  calf  gain  in  weight  from  one  week  to  one  month? 

From  one  month  to  three  months? 

10.  How  young  will  calves  eat  hay? 

11.  In  what  order  should  calves  be  fed? 

12.  How  should  pasture  be  used  for  calves? 

13.  How  may  calves  be  raised  with  use  of  the  least  possible  amount  of 

milk? 

14.  What  is  the  value  of  whey  for  calves? 

15.  What  are  the  chief  causes  of  scouring  in  calves? 

16.  How  may  calf  scours  be  treated? 

17.  How  and  why  is  bone  meal  used  for  young  cattle? 

18.  How  may  sucking  often  be  stopped? 

19.  Tell  how  to  dehorn  a  calf. 

20.  What  influence  has  liberal  feeding  while  young  on  size  at  maturity? 

21.  At  what  age  should  heifer  calves  of  the  dairy  breeds  be  bred? 
22. 'Tell  how  to  develop  the  dairy-bred  bull  calf. 

23.  To  what  class  of  young  stock  ;3  pasture  essential? 

24.  About  what  does  it  cost  to  raise  a  heifer  from  birth  to  two  years  of  age  ? 

25.  How  may  the  actual  cost  on  any  particular  farm  vary? 


PART  V 

CLEAN  MILK  PRODUCTION 


CHAPTER  XXV 
CLEAN  MILK  PRODUCTION  AND  HANDLING 


<^v 


Since  cow's  milk  is  such  an  exceedingly  important  item  in 
our  present  system  of  living  and  since  the  true  value  of  the 
milk  hinges  so  largely  upon  its  cleanliness,  it  is  highly  impor- 
tant that  the  essentials  of  clean  milk  production  be  under- 
stood by  milk  producers. 

The  cows  should  not  only  be  healthy  and  in  good  physical 
condition,  but  also  sufficiently  clean  to  permit  of  milking  with- 
out the  heavy  contamination  so  often  following  that  process. 
To  this  end,  the  barnyards  need  be  kept  sufficiently  clean  and 
dry  as  to  enable  cows  to  walk  freely  without  becoming  dirty  or, 
in  other  words,  milk  should  not  be  permitted  to  be  sold  where 
bad  conditions  cannot  be  rectified  (Fig.  85).  The  ordinary- 
drinking  ponds  found  in  the  cow  pastures  in  so  many  parts 
of  the  country  are  sources  of  contamination.  The  cows  wade 
in  to  drink,  then  defile  the  water  until  soon  the  whole  is  a 
fertile  medium  for  the  growth  of  many  forms  of  slime  and 
bacteria.  The  slimy  stuff  dries  on  the  cows  and  is  chaffed 
off  into  the  pail  at  milking  time.  In  dairy  cow  pastures  such 
drinking  ponds  should  be  fenced  and  provided  with  a  tank  out 
of  which  water  may  be  got  without  its  becoming  polluted. 

The  milkers  have  been  shown  to  be  another  fruitful  source 
of  contamination  where  care  is  not  exercised  in  keeping  the 
hands  clean  during  milking.  The  milker's  clothing  is  also  an 
item  in  this  connection.  If  dusty,  contamination  is  practically 
sure  to  follow.  The  ordinary  dirt  on  the  milker's  overalls, 
while  not  at  all  desirable,  is  not  necessarily  a  source  of  contam- 
ination. White  suits  are  nice  if  kept  clean,  but  expensive. 
Ordinary  blue  or  khaki  overalls  may  be  kept  just  as  sanitary  as 
white  ones  and  show  dirt  much  less.  The  milking  should  be 
done  with  dry  hands.  Wet  handed  milking  is  a  filthy  habit  and 
entirely  unnecessary. 

267 


268  CLEAN  MILK  PRODUCTION  AND  HANDLING 

Milking  stools  made  of  metal  and  so  simply  constructed 
that  they  may  be  readily  washed  are  of  some  aid  in  the  produc- 
tion of  the  highest  class  milk.  Xaturally  some  of  the  effects  of 
hand  washing  and  udder  cleaning  will  be  lost  if  the  milker  is 
compelled  to  seize  a  dirty  stool  just  before  starting  to  milk. 
Though  this  is  a  minor  item  it  nevertheless  is  one  of  the  points  to 
be  observed  in  the  process  of  producing  the  highest  class  milk. 

The  pails  used  are  another  factor.  The  ordinary  open  top 
milk  pail  seems  to  have  been  designed  to  catch  all  the  dirt  pos- 
sible.    A  pail   12   inches  in  diameter  will  have   113   square 


Fig.  85. — A   well-lighted  dairy  barn.      Note  that  top  sash  of  windows  fall  inward  to  aid 
in  ventilation.    Owned  by  H.  P.  Hood  and  Sons,  Boston.    (Courtesy  of  James  Mfg.  Co.) 

inches  of  dirt-catching  surface,  whereas  one  with  half  the  open- 
ing will  have  only  a  quarter  as  much  exposed  area.  Then 
again,  if  this  open  portion  is  raised  to  an  angle  shown  in  the 
accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  86),  a  much  smaller  dirt- 
catching  area  will  be  presented.  There  are  many  so-called 
sanitary  milk  pails  on  the  market.  Many  are  reasonably  good, 
some  are  ridiculous.  The  construction  of  the  pail  within  is 
quite  as  important  as  the  closing  of  a  part  of  the  top.  All  seams 
should  have  been  flushed  full  of  solder,  making  it  possible  to 
clean  them,  or  better  the  pail  should  be  made  of  pressed  tin. 
Every  raw  edge  furnishes  lodgement  for  dirt,  which  means  food 
and  home  for  putrefactive  bacteria. 

The  sterilization  of  pails  and  cans  used  about  the  dairy 
is  essential  in  the  production  of  milk  which  is  to  have  good 
keeping  qualities.     In  order  to  sterilize,  boiling  water  or  live 


STRAINERS 


269 


steam  is  necessary,  preferably  the  latter.  This  may  be  used 
by  inverting  the  vessel  over  the  steam  jet  or  by  placing  the  article 
to  be  sterilized  in  an  oven  which  is  nearly  steam  tight.  There 
are  on  the  market  immense  autoclaves  for  this  purpose,  but  they 
are  not  essential  to  success.  A  concrete  or  even  wooden  box  built 
at  very  nominal  expense  will  serve  nearly  if  not  quite  as  well. 
It  is  desirable  that  such  sterilizer  boxes  be  provided  with  a 
door  on  either  side  so  that  the  freshly  washed  dairy  tools  may 
be  put  into  the  sterilizer  from  the  wash  room  side  and  removed 
from  the  milk  bottling  side  of  the  room. 


Fig.  86. — Milk  pails.     No.  1  is  the  common  open  mouth  kind.     Some  are  too  high  and 
sharp  for  comfort  in  milking.   That  on  either  end  of  the  lower  row  is  a  very  good  pail. 

Strainers  are  at  best  a  crude  attempt  to  undo  something 
which  should  not  have  been  necessary.  Strainers  as  ordinarily 
made  cause  the  hairs,  chaff  and  other  coarse  dirt  to  be  washed 
thoroughly  as  each  successive  pail  is  poured  over  them.  The 
best  sort  of  strainer  is  a  broad  one  consisting  of  a  layer  of 
absorbent  cotton  between  two  sheets  of  clean  cheese  cloth. 

A  clean  barn  is  a  material  aid  in  the  production  of  clean 
milk  (Tigs.  87,  88  and  89).     Eight  here,  however,  distinction 


270 


CLEAN  MILK  PRODUCTION  AND  HANDLING 


needs  to  be  made  between  apparent  and  real  dirtiness.  Bacteria 
cannot  rise  from  a  moist  or  wet  floor,  neither  will  they  long 
remain  floating  in  a  damp  atmosphere.  Therefore,  if  a  stable 
floor  is  not  so  dirty  as  to  allow  pieces  of  filth  to  be  picked  up  by 
the  cow  and  carried  to  the  pail,  a  floor  which  is  apparently  very 
dirty,  but  moist,  may  be  of  less  consequence  than  a  thoroughly 


Fig.  87. — Typical  and  inexpensive  well-made  Southern  cow  stable.  Note  the  open 
corn  crib  construction  of  south  side  (left)  and  ventilation  loft  at  right.  Owned  by  Mr. 
Van  Dyke,  Hope,  Arkansas.     (Photographed  by  author.) 

dry  and  apparently  cleaner  condition.  Fine,  dry  dust  adheres 
to  the  hair  of  the  cow  as  she  lies  in  her  bed  and  is  with  difficulty 
removed  by  hand  or  brush  before  milking.  A  stable  atmos- 
phere filled  with  dust  from  old  hay  is  bad. 

Flies  are  filthy  things  at  best.  They  breed  in  the  manure 
and  carry  portions  of  it  on  their  bodies  wherever  they  go.  A 
fly  swimming  in  milk  or  lying  in   a   strainer  soon  becomes 


FLIES 


271 


washed  fairly  clean.  The  germs  with  which  it  was  more  or 
less  covered  become  dissolved  free  from  the  dirt  and  dissemi- 
nated throughout  the  entire  mass  of  milk.  Flies  may  be  pre- 
vented around  the  stable  and  country  home  to  some  extent  by 
careful  removal  of  barnyard  manure  and  other  waste.  At- 
tempts are  also  being  made  to  kill  the  larva  or  maggot  in  the 
manure  heap  by  sprinkling  over  it  powdered  borax,  also  by  con- 


3  facing  outward 
:owa  to  stand  on. 


Note  method  of  building  in  the  blocks  for  the 
(Courtesy  James  Mig.  Co.) 


structing  cement  pits  over  which  the  manure  is  laid  on  slats. 
The  larvae  fall  through  and  are  killed  in  the  kerosene  water 
below.  After  flies  have  reached  the  adult  form  some  may  be 
caught  by  means  of  various  fly  traps.  About  the  stable  and 
back  door  of  the  kitchen  and  like  places  more  effective  exter- 
mination of  flies  can  probably  be  brought  about  by  poisoning, 
one  of  the  best  means  known  to  the  writer  being  skim  milk  into 
which  formaldehvde  has  been  stirred  at  the  rate  of  three  tea- 


272 


CLEAN  MILK  PRODUCTION  AND  HANDLING 


spoonfuls  to  each  pint  of  milk.  The  greatest  aid  of  all  toward 
a  flyless  farm  is  the  removal  of  manure  daily  to  the  field.  This 
is  impracticable  under  many  circumstances,  but  the  knowledge  of 
the  facts  should  lead  to  efforts  in  that  direction. 

Pure  water  is  highly  desirable.  This  is  particularly  so  if 
the  cows  are  permitted  to  wade  into  the  water  to  drink.  It  is 
quite  as  much  the  contamination  of  the  udder  and  teats  of  the 
cow  as  the  drinking  of  bad  water  which  causes  inferiority  in 
the  milk  produced.  Clean  water  for  the  cow  is  necessary  to 
the  production  of  the  best  flavored  milk. 


Fio.  89. — Inexpensive  yet  clean  cow  house.     Note  liberal  use  of  whitewash.      Owned   by 
F.  Gruenhagen,  Brainerd,  Minn.     (Photographed  by  author.) 

Quick  thorough  cooling  is  the  second  most  important  sin- 
gle item  in  the  production  of  milk  which  shall  stay  sweet 
(Fig.  90).  Keeping  the  dirt  out  is  of  first  importance.  Vari- 
ous sorts  of  coolers  have  been  devised,  many  having  merit. 
Where  abundance  of  flowing  cold  water  is  obtainable  a  cooler  of 
the  form  shown  in  figure  113  is  desired,  but  where  flowing 
water  is  not  at  hand  one  of  the  type  shown  in  figure  114,  which 
when  filled  with  water  will  admit  also  a  chunk  of  ice,  is  desir- 
able. Either  of  these  forms  will  do  good  work  when  the  water 
is  sufficiently  cold  and  the  milk  is  not  forced  over  too  rapidly. 
It  is  naturally  important  that  there  be  no  blowing  of  dust 


SHIPPING  273 

against  this  surface  during  cooling,  otherwise  precautions  taken 
during  milking  may  be  largely  nullified. 

Cold  water  tanks  of  some  form  are  necessary  on  practically 
all  milk-producing  farms.  The  efficiency  of  cold  water  over 
air  of  the  same  temperature  as  cooling  agent  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated. A  cold  water  tank  will  be  found  necessary  during 
the  summer  and  even  all  winter  in  some  sections.  The  ideal  tank 
would  be  one  made  of  cement  placed  low  in  the  milk  room,  thus 
obviating  the  necessity  of  lifting  the  cans  high.  If  it  is  not 
possible  to  pump  water  through  this  tank  for  the  stock,  even 
greater  efficiency  in  cooling  may  be  got  by  placing  in  the  tank- 
water  a  few  chunks  of  ice.  A  well  insulated  tank  filled  with 
water  in  which  are  floating  several  cakes  of  ice  forms  the  most 


PROGENY  OF  A 

SINGLE  GERM 

N  TWELVE  HOURS  WPf; 


Fig.  90. — Showing  the  effect  of  prompt  cooling  on  the  number  of  bacteria  in  milk. 

economical  and  efficient  method  known  for  keeping  milk  sweet. 
Shipping. — Much  remains  to  be  accomplished  in  the  matter 
of  shipping  milk.  ]NTo  matter  how  much  care  has  been  bestowed 
during  the  milking  process  some  dirt,  which  means  some  germs, 
is  sure  to  find  its  way  into  the  milk,  though  germs  are  held 
down  or  prevented  from  growing  by  the  cold  temperature  imme- 
diately given.  They  are  present,  however,  to  grow  the  moment 
the  milk  becomes  warm  enough  and  this  point  is  reached  at  about 
50  degrees.  At  60  degrees  the  lactic  acid  germ  grows  rapidly. 
Cans  of  milk  delivered  to  the  railroad  station  and  there  allowed 
to  stand  in  the  sun  very  soon  warm  to  such  a  point  that  the 
bacteria  within  commence  growing  rapidly.  Insulating  jackets 
are  on  the  market  which  aid  considerably,  but  these  are 
18 


274     CLEAN  MILK  PRODUCTION  AND  HANDLING 

somewhat  expensive  and  crude  after  all.  Shipping  cans  made 
with  double  walls  are  also  on  the  market,  hut,  being  valuable, 
are  liable  to  be  lost.  This  naturally  discourages  the  shipper 
who  endeavors  to  do  especially  good  work.  Where  possible  it  is 
highly  desirable  that  the  company  purchasing  the  milk  or  the 
farmers  in  some  co-operative  arrangement  provide  a  cold  wait- 
ing room  for  the  milk  at  the  station  and  then  that  the  trans- 
portation company  provide  well  iced  cars  for  the  milk  during 
transit.  Only  by  providing  these  final  arrangements  can  the 
efficient  work  done  earlier  in  the  process  be  supported  and 
sound  milk  be  delivered  to  the  receiving  companies  in  the  cities. 

The  New  York  Classes  of  Milk>—The  city  of  New  (York 
established  three  grades  of  milk,  as  follows : 

Grade  "  A  " — For  Infants  and  Children. — 1.  Raw. — Re- 
quirements.— Cows  to  be  tuberculin  tested  and  physically  ex- 
amined. Milk  not  to  contain  more  than  60,000  bacteria  per 
c.c.  when  delivered  (Fig.  90).  Dairies  to  score  not  less  than 
75,  25  on  equipment  and  50  on  method.  Delivered  within  36 
hours.     Bottled.     Labeled  "  Grade  A  Raw." 

2.  Pasteurized. — Cows  physically  examined. — Milk  not  to 
contain  more  than  30,000  bacteria  per  c.c.  when  delivered ;  not 
more  than  200,000  before  pasteurized.  Pasteurization  to  be 
done  at  142  to  145  degrees  Fahrenheit  for  30  minutes.  Dairies 
to  score  not  less  than  68  per  cent,  25  on  equipment  and  43 
on  method.  Delivered  36  hours  from  production.  Bottled. 
Labeled  "  Grade  A  Pasteurized." 

Grade  "  B  "  for  Adults. — 1.  Cows  to  be  physically  exam- 
ined.— Not  more  than  1,500,000  bacteria  per  c.c.  when  pas- 
teurized, nor  more  than  100,000  bacteria  per  c.c.  when  deliv- 
ered. Pasteurized  at  142  to  145  degrees — 30  minutes.  Dairies 
to  score  not  less  than  55  per  cent,  20  on  equipment  and  35 
on  method.  Delivered  before  36  hours  old  (cream  may  be 
72  hours  old).  May  be  delivered  in  bottles,  or  cans,  labeled 
"  Grade  B  Pasteurized." 

Grade  "  C  " — For  Cooking  and  Manufacturing. — 1.  Cows 
physically  examined. — Bacteria  not  more  than  1,500,000  per 


QUESTIONS  275 

c.c.  when  pasteurized,  nor  more  than  300,000  per  c.c.  when  de- 
livered. To  be  pasteurized  at  145  degrees  for  30  minutes. 
Dairies  to  score  40  points.  Delivery  in  48  hours  after  pas- 
teurization. Shall  be  delivered  in  cans.  Labeled  "  Grade  C 
(for  cooking)." 

2.   Condensed  Shimmed  Milk. — Cans  to  be  painted  blue,  etc. 

Dairy  Score  Card. — The  score  card  system  of  comparing 
the  cleanliness  of  dairy  barns  and  the  methods  of  handling  the 
product  is  of  value  not  only  for  the  direct  purpose  of  com- 
parison but  to  point  out  as  well  to  the  workers  in  the  dairy 
where  to  look  for  trouble. 

Various  score  cards  have  been  devised,  but  the  one  that  was 
developed  by  the  Federal  Dairy  Division  and  approved  by 
the  Official  Dairy  Instructors'  Association  has  been  most  widely 
adopted.  The  score  card  from  Kochester,  New  York,  is  typical 
of  the  one  in  most  general  use  (see  pp.  276-277). 

Material  vs.  Method. — While  the  dairy  score  card  has  its 
uses  it  must  not  be  judged  that  a  high  scoring  stable  will  pro- 
duce high  scoring  milk,  or  that  a  low  scoring  stable  necessar- 
ily means  low  scoring  milk.  There  is  no  relationship  between 
expensiveness  of  barn  and  quality  of  milk  produced  and  very 
little  between  score  raid  quality.  This  becomes  true  because  the 
methods  employed  are  so  much  more  important  than  the  material. 

A  silk  garment  may  be  soiled  and  a  cotton  one  the  acme  of 
cleanliness. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  may  the  pasture  drinking  pond  affect  the  sanitary  character  of 

the  milk  produced  ? 

2.  What  points  of  cleanliness  should  the  milker  observe? 

3.  What  points  about  a  milk  pail  are  important  in  clean  milk  production? 

4.  Distinguish  between  real  and  apparent  dirtiness  in  stables. 

5.  Where  do  flies  breed?     Name  one  good  poison  for  them. 

6    What  effect  does  the  purity  of  water  drunk  by  the  cow  have  upon  the 
quality  of  the  milk  produced? 

7.  What  is  the  second  most  important  point  in  the  production  of  good 

milk?     What  is  the  first? 

8.  How  should  milk  or  cream  be  kept  cool? 

9.  What  precautions  should  be  taken  in  shipping  milk  into  the  cities? 
10.  Discuss  the  score  card  used  for  dairy  barn  and  milk  rooms. 


276 


CLEAN  MILK  PRODUCTION  AND  HANDLING 


(Score  Card  for  Dairies 

(Rochester  Health  Bureau,  New  York  State  Department  of  Health) 

[Indorsed  by  the  Official   Dairy  Instructors'   Association.     Subject  to  revision  at  future 

meetings.] 

Owner  or  lessee  of  farm 

P.  O.  address County 

Total  number  of  cows Number  milking Gallons  of  milk  produced  daily 

Product  is  sold  by  producer  in  families,  hotels,  restaurants,  stores,  to dealer 

For  milk  supply  of 

Permit  No Date  of  inspection ,  19 

Remarks: .' . 


X 


SCORE 

METHOnS 

SCORE 

EQUIPMENT 

Perfect 

Allowed 

Perfect 

Allowed 

COWS 

6 

1 
1 

2 

4 

4 

1 



...1... 



k 

COWS 

8 

Apparently      in      good 

health 1 

*  If  tested  with  tubercu- 
lin within  a  year  and 
no      tuberculosis      is 
found,     or    if    tested 
within      six     months 
and  all  reacting  ani-^ 

mals  removed 5 

(If  tested  within  a  year 
and  reacting  animals  are 
found  and  removed,  3.) 
Food    (clean    and    whole- 

(Free  from  visible  dirt, 6.) 

STABLES 

Cleanliness  of  stables 

Floor 2 

Walls 1 

Ceilings  and  ledges ....  1 

!     Mangers  and  partitionsl 

Windows 1 

Stable  air  at  milking  time  . 
Freedom  from  dust.  .  .  .3 
Freedom  from  odors.  .  .2 

Cleanliness  of  bedding .  .  . 

6 

5 

1 
2 

2 
2 

8 





Water  (clean  and  fresh). . . 

STABLES 

Location  of  stable 

:::::::: 

Clean 1 

Well  drained 1 

Removal  of  manure  daily 
to  50  feet  from  stable .  . 

MILK  ROOM  OR  MILK  HOUSE 

Cleanliness  of  milk  room. 

UTENSILS    AND    MILKING 

Care    and    cleanliness    of 

Free  from  contaminat- 
ing surroundings ....  1 
Construction  of  stable .... 

Tight,  sound  floor  and 
proper  gutter 2 

Smooth,  tight  walls  and 
ceiling 1 

Proper    stall,    tie.    and 

manger 1 

Provision  for  light:   Four 
sq.  ft.  of  glass  per  cow 

(Three  sq.  ft.,3;2sq.  ft., 
2;lsq.  ft.,  1.    Deduct 
for   uneven   distribu- 
tion.) 
Bedding 

Thoroughly  washed.  .  .2 
Sterilized  in   steam   for 

15  minutes 3 

j      (Placed  over  steam  jet, 
or  scalded   with   boil- 
ing water,  2.) 

SCORE  CARD  FOR  DAIRIES 
(Score  Card  for  Dairies.—  Continued) 


277 


SCORE 

METHODS 

SCORE 

Perfect 

Allowed 

Perfect 

Allowed 

7 

1 

5 
1 

2 

1 
1 

40 

i 
.  .  .  1  ■  ■  '■ 



/ 

...J  ... 

Protected  from  contami- 
nation  3 

Cleanliness  of  milking 

Clean,  dry  hands  .....  3 

Udders      washed      and 
wiped 6 

(Udders    cleaned    with 
moist  cloth,  4 ;  cleaned 
with     dry     cloth     or 
brush  at  least  15  min- 
utes before  milking,  1.) 

HANDLING    THE    MILK 

Cleanliness  of  attendants 

9 

2 

2 

2 

5 

3 

2 

Provision    for    fresh    air, 

controllable  flue  system  3 

(Windows     hinged   <  at 

bottom,    1.5;    sliding 

windows,      1;     other 

openings,  0.5.) 

Cubic  feet  of  space  per 

(Less   than   500   ft.,   2; 

less  than  400  ft.,    1; 

less  than  300  ft.,  0.) 
Provision  for  controlling 

temperature 1 

UTENSILS 

Construction    and    condi- 
tion of  utensils 

Water  for  cleaning 

(Clean,  convenient,  and 
abundant.) 

Small-top  milking  pail .... 

Milk    removed    immedi- 
ately from  stable  with- 
out pouring  from  pail  . 

Cooled  immediately  after 
milking  each  cow 

Cooled  below  50°  F 

(51°   to   55°,  4;    56°   to 
60°,  2.) 

Stored  below  50°  F 

(51°    to   55°,  2;   56°    to 
60°,  1.) 

Transportation         below 
50°  F .  .  .  .                   

Clean  milking  suits 

MILK  ROOM  OR  MILK  HOUSE 

Location:    Free  from  con- 
taminating surroundings 

Construction  of  milk  room 
Floor,  walls  and  ceiling  1 
Light,     ventilation, 
screens 1 

Separate  rooms  for  wash- 
ing utensils  and  handling 

(51°  to  55°,  1.5;  56°  to 

60°,  1.) 
(If    delivered    twice     a 

day,      allow     perfect 

score  for  storage  and 

transportation.) 

Total 

Facilities  for  steam 

(Hot  water.  0.5.) 

Total 

...    % 

60 



*  Alternate.    If  pasteurized  by  holding  process  according  to  the  Sanitary  Code,  Chap.  Ill, 
Reg.  12;  score,  5. 
Equipment +  Methods = Final  Score 

Note  1 — If  any  exceptionally  filthy  condition  is  found,  particularly  dirty  utensils,  tho 
total  score  may  be  further  limited. 

Note  2 — If  the  water  is  exposed  to  dangerous  contamination,  or  there  is  evidence  of  the 
presence  of  a  dangerous  disease  in  animals  or  attendants,  the  score  shall  be  0. 

Inspector. 


*r 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

METHODS  AND  STANDARDS  FOR  THE  PRODUCTION  AND 
DISTRIBUTION  OF  CERTIFIED  MILK* 

(Adopted  by  the  American  Association  of  Medical  Milk  Commissions,  May  1,  1912.) 
\J^_  HYGIENE    OF    THE    DAIRY 

Under  the  Supervision  and  Control  of  the  Veterinarian. 

1.  Pastures  or  Paddocks. — Pastures  or  paddocks  to  which 
the  cows  have  access  shall  be  free  from  marshes  or  stagnant 
pools,  crossed  by  no  stream  which  might  become  dangerously 
contaminated,  at  sufficient  distance  from  offensive  conditions 
to  suffer  no  bad  effects  from  them,  and  shall  be  free  from  plants 
which  affect  the  milk  deleteriously. 

2.  Surroundings  or  Buildings — The  surroundings  of  all 
buildings  shall  be  kept  clean  and  free  from  accumulations  of 
dirt,  rubbish,  decayed  vegetable  or  animal  matter  or  animal 
waste,  and  the  stable  yard  shall  be  well  drained. 

3.  Location  of  Buildings. — Buildings  in  which  certified 
milk  is  produced  and  handled  shall  be  so  located  as  to  insure 
proper  shelter  and  good  drainage,  and  at  sufficient  distance 
from  other  buildings,  dusty  roads,  cultivated  and  dusty  fields, 
and  all  other  possible  sources  of  contamination ;  provided,  in 
the  case  of  unavoidable  proximity  to  dusty  roads  or  fields,  the 
exposed  side  shall  be  screened  with  cheesecloth. 

4.  Construction  of  Stables. — The  stables  shall  be  con- 
structed so  as  to  facilitate  the  prompt  and  easy  removal  of  waste 
products  (Fig.  91).  The  floors  and  platforms  shall  be  made 
of  cement  or  other  nonabsorbent  material  and  the  gutters  of 
cement  only.  The  floors  shall  be  properly  graded  and  drained, 
and  the  manure  gutters  shall  be  from  6  to  8  inches  deep  and 
so  placed  in  relation  10  the  platform  that  all  manure  will  drop 
into  them   (Fig.   92). 

5.  The  inside  surface  of  the  walls  and  all  interior  construc- 

*  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  No.  1,  1913. 
278 


VENTILATION 


279 


tion  shall  be  smooth,  with  tight  joints,  and  shall  be  capable  of 
shedding  water.  The  ceiling  shall  be  of  smooth  material  and 
dust  tight.  All  horizontal  and  slanting  surfaces  which  might 
harbor  dust  shall  be  avoided. 

6.  Drinking  and  Feed  Troughs. — Drinking  troughs  or 
basins  shall  be  drained  and  cleaned  each  day,  and  feed  and  mix- 
ing troughs  shall  be  kept  in  a  clean  and  sanitary  condition. 


Fio.  91. — Well-finished   dairy  barn  on  farm   of   F.    O.   Lowden,    Oregon,   111. 
James  Mfg.  Co.) 


(Courtesy 


7.  Stanchions. — Stanchions,  when  used,  shall  be  con- 
structed of  iron  pipes  or  hardwood,  and  throat  latches  shall  be 
provided  to  prevent  the  cows  from  lying  down  between  the 
time  of  cleaning  and  the  time  of  milking. 

8.  Ventilation. — The  cow  stables  shall  be  provided  with 


280      PRODUCTION  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  CERTIFIED  MILK 

adequate  ventilation  either  by  means  of  some  approved  arti- 
ficial device,  or  by  the  substitution  of  cheesecloth  for  glass  in 
the  windows,  each  cow  to  be  provided  with  a  minimum  of  600 
cubic  feet  of  air  space. 

9.  Windows. — A  sufficient  number  of  windows  shall  be 
installed  and  so  distributed  as  to  provide  satisfactory  light  and 
a  maximum  of  sunshine,  2  feet  square  of  window  area  to  each 


Flo.  92. — These  cows  keep  themselves  clean  by  stepping  forward  to  lie  down  in  front 
ol  the  2  x  4-inch  stringer  which  holds  the  bedding  in  place.  Note  the  broad  shallow  gutter, 
safe  and  easy  to  clean.     (Owned  by  C.  C.  Graves,  Maryville,  Mo.) 

600  cubic  feet  of  air  space  to  represent  the  minimum.     The 
coverings  of  such  windows  shall  be  kept  free  from  dust  and  dirt. 

10.  Exclusion  of  Flies,  Etc. — All  necessary  measures  should 
be  taken  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  flies  and  other  insects  and 
rats  and  other  vermin  into  all  the  buildings. 

11.  Exclusion  of  Animals  from  the  Herd. — JSTo  horses, 
hogs,  dogs,  or  other  animals  or  fowls  shall  be  allowed  to  come  in 


A  WELL  BALANCED  RATION  281 

contact  with  the  certified  herd,  either  in  the  stables  or  elsewhere. 

12.  Bedding. — No  dusty  or  moldy  hay,  or  straw,  bedding 
from  horse  stalls,  or  other  unclean  animals  shall  be  used  for 
bedding  the  cows.  Only  bedding  which  is  clean,  dry,  and 
absorbent  may  be  used,  preferably  shavings  or  straw. 

13.  Cleaning  Stable  and  Disposal  of  Manure. — Soiled  bed- 
ding and  manure  shall  be  removed  at  least  twice  daily,  and  the 
floors  shall  be  swept  and  kept  free  from  refuse.  Such  cleaning 
shall  be  done  at  least  one  hour  before  the  milking  timet 
Manure,  when  removed,  shall  be  drawn  to  the  field  or  tem- 
porarily stored  in  containers  so  screened  as  to  exclude  flies. 
Manure  shall  not  be  even  temporarily  stored  within  300  feet  of 
the  barn  or  dairy  building  (Fig.  93). 

14.  Cleaning  of  Cows. — Each  cow  in  the  herd  shall  be 
groomed  daily,  and  no  manure,  mud,  or  filth  shall  be  allowed  to 
remain  upon  her  during  milking;  for  cleaning,  a  vacuum 
apparatus  is  recommended. 

15.  Clipping. — Long  hairs  shall  be  clipped  from  the  udder 
and  flanks  of  the  cow  and  from  the  tail  above  the  brush.  The 
hair  on  the  tail  shall  be  cut  so  that  the  brush  may  be  well 
above  the  ground. 

16.  Cleaning  of  Udders. — The  udders  and  teats  of  the  cow 
shall  be  cleaned  before  milking;  they  shall  be  washed  with  a 
cloth  and  water,  and  dry  wiped  with  another  clean  sterilized 
cloth — a  separate  cloth  for  drying  each  cow. 

17.  Feeding. — All  feedstuff's  shall  be  kept  in  an  apartment 
separate  from  and  not  directly  communicating  with  the  cow 
barn.  They  shall  be  brought  into  the  barn  only  immediately 
before  feeding  hour,  which  shall  follow  the  milking. 

18.  Only  those  feeds  shall  be  used  which  consist  of  fresh, 
palatable,  or  nutritious  materials,  such  as  will  not  injure  the 
health  of  the  cows  or  unfavorably  affect  the  taste  or  character  of 
the  milk.  Any  dirty  or  moldy  feed  or  feed  in  a  state  of  decom- 
position or  putrefaction  shall  not  be  given. 

19.  A  well-balanced  ration  shall  be  used,  and  all  changes  of 
feed  shall  be  made  slowly.     The  first  few  feedings  of  grass^ 


■^ 


g„ 


•Sid 


MILK  AND  CALVING  PERIOD  283 

alfalfa,  ensilage,  green  corn,  or  other  green  feeds  'shall  be  given 
in  small  rations  and  increased  gradually  to  full  ration. 

20.  Exercise. — All  dairy  cows  shall  be  turned  out  for  exer- 
cise at  least  two  hours  in  each  twenty-four  in  suitable  weather. 
Exercise  yards  shall  be  kept  free  from  manure  and  other  filth. 

21.  Washing  of  Hands. — Conveniently  located  facilities 
shall  be  provided  for  the  milkers  to  wash  their  hands  before  and 
during  milking. 

22.  The  hands  of  the  milkers  shall  be  thoroughly  washed 
with  soap,  water,  and  brush  and  carefully  dried  on  a  clean 
towel  immediately  before  milking.  The  hands  of  the  milkers 
shall  be  rinsed  with  clean  water  and  carefully  dried  before 
milking  each  cow.  The  practice  of  moistening  the  hands  with 
milk  is  forbidden. 

23.  Milking  Clothes — Clean  overalls,  jumper,  and  cap 
shall  be  worn  during  milking.  They  shall  be  washed  or  steril- 
ized each  day  and  used  for  no  other  purpose,  and  when  not  in 
use  they  shall  be  kept  in  a  clean  place,  protected  from  dust 
and  dirt. 

24.  Things  to  be  Avoided  by  Milkers. — While  engaged 
about  the  dairy  or  in  handling  the  milk  employees  shall  not  use 
tobacco  nor  intoxicating  liquors.  They  shall  keep  their  fingers 
away  from  their  nose  and  mouth,  and  no  milker  shall  permit 
his  hands,  fingers,  lips,  or  tongue  to  come  in  contact  with 
milk  intended  for  sale. 

25.  During  milking  the  milkers  shall  be  careful  not  to  touch 
anything  but  the  clean  top  of  the  milking  stool,  the  milk  pail, 
and  the  cow's  teats. 

26.  Milkers  are  forbidden  to  spit  upon  the  walls  or  floors 
of  stables,  or  upon  the  walls  or  floors  of  milk  houses,  or  into 
the  water  used  for  cooling  the  milk  or  washing  the  utensils. 

27.  Fore  Milk. — The  first  streams  from  each  teat  shall  be 
rejected,  as  this  fore  milk  contains  large  numbers  of  bac- 
teria. Such  milk  shall  be  collected  into  a  separate  vessel  and 
not  milked  onto  the  floors  or  into  the  gutters.  The  milking 
shall  be  done  rapidly  and  quietly,  and  the  cows  shall  be 
treated  kindly. 

28.  Milk  and  Calving  Period — Milk  from  all  cows  shall  be 


284      PRODUCTION  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  CERTIFIED  MILK 

excluded  for  a  period  of  45    days  before   and  7   days   after 
parturition. 

29.  Bloody  and  Stringy  Milk. — If  milk  from  any  cow  is 
bloody  and  stringy  or  of  unnatural  appearance,  the  milk  from 
that  cow  shall  be  rejected  and  the  cow  isolated  from  the  herd 
until  the  cause  of  such  abnormal  apearance  has  been  determined 
and  removed,  special  attention  being  given  in  the  meantime  to 
the  feeding  or  to  possible  injuries.  If  dirt  gets  into  the  pail, 
the  milk  shall  be  discarded  and  the  pail  washed  before  it  is  used. 

30.  Make-up  of  Herd. — ]STo  cows  except  those  receiving  the 
same  supervision  and  care  as  the  certified  herd  shall  be  kept  in 
the  same  bam  or  brought  in  contact  with  them. 

31.  Employees  Other  Than  Milkers. — The  requirements 
for  milkers,  relative  to  garments  and  cleaning  of  handa,  shall 
apply  to  all  other  persons  handling  the  milk,  and  children  unat- 
tended by  adults  shall  not  be  allowed  in  the  dairy  nor  in  the 
stable  during  milking. 

32.  Straining  and  Strainers. — Promptly  after  the  milk  is 
drawn  it  shall  be  removed  from  the  stable  to  a  clean  room 
(Fig.  94),  and  then  emptied  from  the  milk  pail  to  the  can,  being 
strained  through  strainers  made  of  a  double  layer  of  finely 
meshed  cheesecloth  or  absorbent  cotton  thoroughly  sterilized. 
Several  strainers  shall  be  provided  for  each  milking  in  order 
that  they  may  be  frequently  changed. 

33.  Dairy  Building. — A  dairy  building  shall  be  provided 
which  shall  be  located  at  a  distance  from  the  stable  and  dwell- 
ing prescribed  by  the  local  commission,  and  there  shall  be  no 
hog-j>en,  privy,  or  manure  pile  at  a  higher  level  or  within  300 
feet  of  it. 

34.  The  dairy  building  shall  be  kept  clean  and  shall  not 
be  used  for  purposes  other  than  the  handling  and  storing  of 
milk  and  milk  utensils  (Figs.  95  and  119).  It  shall  be  pro- 
vided with  light  and  ventilation,  and  the  floors  shall  be  graded 
and  water-tight. 

35.  The  dairy  building  shall  be  well  lighted  and  screened 
and  drained  through  well-trapped  pipes.  Xo  animals  shall  be 
allowed  therein.  ISTo  part  of  the  dairy  building  shall  be  used 
for  dwelling  or  lodging  purposes,  and  the  bottling  room  shall 


CLEANING  AND  STERILIZING  OF  BOTTLES 


285 


be  used  for  no  other  purpose  than  to  provide  a  place  for  clean 
milk  utensils  and  for  handling  the  milk.  During  bottling  this 
room  shall  be  entered  only  by  persons  employed  therein.  The 
bottling  room  shall  be  kept  scrupulously  clean  and  odorless. 

36.  Temperature  of  Milk — Proper  cooling  to  reduce  the 
temperature  to  forty-five  degrees  F.  shall  be  used,  and  aerators 
shall  be  so  situated  that  they  can  be  protected  from  flies, 
dust,  and  odors.  The  milk  shall  be  cooled  immediately  after 
being  milked,  and  maintained  at  a  temperature  between  thirty- 
five  and  forty-five  degrees  F.  until  delivered  to  the  consumer. 


ctxtvtvkv  mix  ftoost- 

Fig.  94. — Elevation  of  certified  milk  house  showing  arrangement  of  milk  spout  through  the 
wall  from  the  weigh  room  into  the  milk  room.  There  is  no  door  connecting  the  two  rooms. 

37.  Sealing  of  Bottles — Milk,  after  being  cooled  and  bot- 
tled, shall  be  immediately  sealed  in  a  manner  satisfactory  to  the 
commission,  but  such  seal  shall  include  a  sterile  hood  which 
completely  covers  the  lip  of  the  bottle. 

38.  Cleaning  and  Sterilizing  of  Bottles.— -The  dairy  build- 
ing shall  be  provided  with  approved  apparatus  for  the  cleansing 
and  sterilizing  of  all  bottles  and  utensils  used  in  milk  pro- 
duction. All  bottles  and  utensils  shall  be  thoroughly  cleaned 
by  hot  water  and  sal  soda,  or  equally  pure  agent,  rinsed  until 
the  cleaning  water  is  thoroughly  removed,  then  exposed  to  live 
steam  or  boiling  water  at  least  twenty  minutes,  and  then  kept 
inverted  until  used  in  a  place  free  from  dust  and  other  contam- 
inating materials. 


286     PRODUCTION  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  CERTIFIED  MILK 

39.  Utensils. — All  utensils  shall  be  so  constructed  as  to  be 
easily  cleaned.  The  milk  pail  should  preferably  have  an  ellip- 
tical opening  5  by  7  inches  in  diameter.     The  cover  of  this 


ctvwmv   HIIK  &OUSfc 


Fig.  95. — Plan  of  milk  house  connected  to,  yet  separated  from,  the  cow  barn.  There 
is  no  door  between  the  weigh  room  and  the  milk  room.  (Adapted  from  the  certified  milk 
plant  of  "The  Arden  Farms,"  St.  Paul,  Minn.) 

pail  should  be  so  convex  as  to  make  the  entire  interior  of  the 
pail  visible  and  accessible  for  cleaning.  The  pail  shall  be  made 
of  heavy  seamless  tin,  and  with  seams  which  are  flushed  and 
made  smooth  by  solder.     Wooden  pails,  galvanized-iron  pails, 


VETERINARY  SUPERVISION  OF  HERD  287 

or  pails  made  of  rough,  porous  materials,  are  forbidden.     All 
utensils  used  in  milking  shall  be  kept  in  good  repair. 

40.  Water  Supply. — The  entire  water  supply  shall  be  abso- 
lutely free  from  contamination,  and  be  sufficient  for  all  dairy 
purposes.  It  shall  be  protected  against  flood  or  surface  drainage, 
and  shall  be  conveniently  situated  in  relation  to  the  milk  house. 

41.  Privies,  etc.,  in  Relation  to  Water  Supply — Privies, 
pig-pens,  manure  piles,  and  all  other  possible  sources  of  con- 
tamination shall  be  so  situated  on  the  farm  as  to  render  impos- 
sible the  contamination  of  the  water  supply,  and  shall  be  so 
protected  by  use  of  screens  and  other  measures  as  to  prevent 
their  becoming  breeding  grounds  for  flies. 

42.  Toilet  Rooms. — Toilet  facilities  for  the  milkers  shall 
be  provided  and  located  outside  of  the  stable  or  milk  house. 
These  toilets  shall  be  properly  screened,  shall  be  kept  clean,  and 
shall  be  accessible  to  wash  basins,  water,  nail  brush,  soap  and 
towels,  and  the  milkers  shall  be  required  to  wash  and  dry  their 
hands  immediately  after  leaving  the  toilet  room. 

TRANSPORTATION 

43.  In  transit  the  milk  packages  shall  be  kept  free  from 
dust  and  dirt.  The  wagon,  trays,  and  crates  shall  be  kept 
scrupulously  clean.  No  bottles  shall  be  collected  from  houses 
in  which  communicable  diseases  prevail,  unless  a  separate 
wagon  is  used  and  under  conditions  prescribed  by  the  depart- 
ment of  health  and  the  medical  milk  commission. 

44.  All  certified  milk  shall  reach  the  consumer  within  thirty 
hours  after  milking. 

VETERINARY   SUPERVISION    OF   THE   HEKD 

45.  Tuberculin  Test. — The  herd  shall  be  free  from  tubercu- 
losis, as  shown  by  the  proper  application  of  the  tuberculin  test. 
The  test  shall  be  applied  in  accordance  with  the  rules  and  regu- 
lations of  the  United  States  Government,  and  all  reactors  shall 
be  removed  immediately  from  the  farm. 

46.  ~No  new  animals  shall  be  admitted  to  the  herd  without 
first  having  passed  a  satisfactory  tuberculin  test,  made  in  accord- 
ance with  the  rules  and  regulations  mentioned ;  the  tuberculin 


288    PRODUCTION  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  CERTIFIED  MILK 

to  be  obtained  and  applied  only  by  the  official  veterinarian  of 
the  commission. 

47.  Immediately  following  the  application  of  the  tuberculin 
test  to  a  herd  for  the  purpose  of  eliminating  tuberculous  cattle, 
the  cow  stable  and  exercising  yards  shall  be  disinfected  by  the 
veterinary  inspector  in  accordance  with  the  rules  and  regula- 
tions of  the  United  States  Government. 

48.  A  second  tuberculin  test  shall  follow  each  primary  test 
after  an  interval  of  six  months,  and  shall  be  applied  in  accord- 
ance with  the  rules  and  regulations  mentioned.  Thereafter, 
tuberculin  tests  shall  be  reapplied  annually,  but  it  is  recom- 
mended that  the  retests  be  applied  semi-annually. 

49.  Identification  of  Cows. — Each  dairy  cow  in  each  of  the 
certified  herds  shall  be  labeled  or  tagged  with  a  number  or  mark 
which  will  permanently  identify  her. 

50.  Herd-book  Record. — Each  cow  in  the  herd  shall  be  reg- 
istered in  a  herd  book,  which  register  shall  be  accurately  kept 
so  that  her  entrance  and  departure  from  the  herd  and  her  tuber- 
culin testing  can  be  identified. 

51.  A  copy  of  this  herd-book  record  shall  be  kept  in  the 
hands  of  the  veterinarian  of  the  medical  milk  commission  under 
which  the  dairy  farm  is  operating,  and  the  veterinarian  shall  be 
made  responsible  for  the  accuracy  of  this  record. 

52.  Dates  of  Tuberculin  Tests.— The  dates  of  the  animal 
tuberculin  tests  shall  be  definitely  arranged  by  the  medical  milk 
commission,  and  all  of  the  results  of  such  tests  shall  be  recorded 
by  the  veterinarian  and  regularly  reported  to  the  secretary  of 
the  medical  milk  commission  issuing  the  certificate. 

53.  The  results  of  all  tuberculin  tests  shall  be  kept  on  file  by 
each  medical  milk  commission,  and  a  copy  of  all  such  tests 
shall  be  made  available  to  the  American  Association  of  Medical 
Milk  Commissions  for  statistical  purposes. 

54.  The  properly  designated  officers  of  the  American  Asso- 
ciation of  Medical  Milk  Commissions  should  receive  copies  of 
reports  of  all  of  the  annual,  semi-annual,  and  other  official 
tuberculin  tests  which  are  made  and  keep  copies  of  the  same  on 
file  and  compile  them  annually  for  the  use  of  the  association. 


BACTERIOLOGICAL  STANDARDS  289 

55.  Disposition  of  Cows  Sick  with  Disease  Other  Than 
Tuberculosis. — Cows  having  rheumatism,  leucorrhea,  inflam- 
mation of  the  uterus,  severe  diarrhea,  or  disease  of  the  udder, 
or  cows  that  from  any  other  cause  may  he  a  menace  to  the 
herd  shall  be  removed  from  the  herd  and  placed  in  a  building 
separate  from  that  which  may  be  used  for  the  isolation  of  cows 
with  tuberculosis,  unless  such  building  has  been  properly  disin- 
fected since  it  was  last  used  for  this  purpose.  The  milk  from 
such  cows  shall  not  be  used  nor  shall  the  cows  be  restored  to  the 
herd  until  permission  has  been  given  by  the  veterinary  inspector 
after  a  careful  physical  examination. 

56.  Notification  of  Veterinary  Inspector. — In  the  event  of 
the  occurrence  of  any  of  the  diseases  just  described  between  the 
visits  of  the  veterinary  inspector,  or  if  at  any  time  a  number  of 
cows  become  sick  at  one  time  in  such  a  way  as  to  suggest  the 
outbreak  of  a  contagious  disease  or  poisoning,  it  shall  be  the 
duty  of  the  dairyman  to  withdraw  such  sickened  cattle  from  the 
herd,  to  destroy  their  milk,  and  to  notify  the  veterinary  inspec- 
tor by  telegraph  or  telephone  immediately. 

57.  Emaciated  Cows. — Cows  that  are  emaciated  from 
chronic  diseases  or  from  any  cause  that  in  the  opinion  of  the 
veterinary  inspector  may  endanger  the  quality  of  the  milk,  shall 
be  removed  from  the  herd. 

BACTERIOLOGICAL    STANDARDS 

58.  Bacterial  Counts — Certified  milk  shall  contain  less 
than  10,000  bacteria  per  cubic  centimeter  when  delivered.  In 
case  a  count  exceeding  10,000  bacteria  per  cubic  centimeter  is 
found,  daily  counts  shall  be  made,  and  if  normal  counts  are  not 
restored  within  ten  days  the  certificate  shall  be  suspended. 

59.  Bacterial  counts  shall  be  made  at  least  once  a  week. 

60.  Collection  of  Samples. — The  samples  to  be  examined 
shall  be  obtained  from  milk  as  offered  for  sale  and  shall  be  taken 
by  a  representative  of  the  milk  commission.  The  samples  shall 
be  received  in  the  original  packages,  in  properly  iced  containers, 
and  they  shall  be  so  kept  until  examined,  so  as  to  limit  as  far  as 
possible  changes  in  their  bacterial  content. 

61.  For  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  temperature,  a 

19 


290    PRODUCTION  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  CERTIFIED  MILK 

separate  original  package  shall  be  used,  and  the  temperature 
taken  at  the  time  of  collecting  the  sample,  using  for  the  pur- 
pose a  standardized  thermometer  graduated  in  the  centigrade 
gcale.  ********* 

CHEMICAL  STANDARDS  AND  METHODS 

The  methods  that  must  be  followed  in  carrying  out  the 
chemical  investigations  essential  to  the  protection  of  certified 
milks  are  so  complicated  that  in  order  to  keep  the  fees  of  the 
chemist  at  a  reasonable  figure,  there  must  be  eliminated  from 
the  examination  those  procedures  which,  whilst  they  might  be 
helpful  and  interesting,  are  in  no  sense  necessary. 

For  this  reason  the  determination  of  the  water,  the  total 
solids  and  the  milk  sugar  is  not  required  as  a  part  of  the 
routine  examination. 

70.  The  chemical  analysis  shall  be  made  by  a  competent 
chemist  designated  by  the  medical  milk  commission. 

71.  Method  of  Obtaining  Samples. — The  samples  to  be  ex- 
amined by  the  chemist  shall  have  been  examined  previously 
by  the  bacteriologist  designated  by  the  medical  milk  commis- 
sion as  to  temperature,  odor,  taste,  and  bacterial  content. 

72.  Fat  Standards. — The  fat  standard  for  certified  milk 
shall  be  4  per  cent,  with  a  permissible  range  of  variation  of 
from  3.5  to  4.5  per  cent. 

73.  The  fat  standard  for  certified  cream  shall  be  not  less 
than  18  per  cent. 

74.  If  it  is  desired  to  sell  higher  fat-percentage  milks  or 
creams  as  certified  milks  or  creams,  the  range  of  variation  for 
such  milks  shall  be  0.5  per  cent  on  either  side  of  the  advertised 
percentage  and  the  range  of  variations  for  such  creams  shall  be  2 
per  cent  on  either  side  of  the  advertised  percentage. 

75.  The  fat  content  of  certified  milks  and  creams  shall  be 

determined  at  least  once  each  month. 

********* 

87.  Specific  Gravity. — The  specific  gravity  of  certified  milk 
shall  range  from  1.029  to  1.034. 

88.  The  specific  gravity  shall  be  determined  at  least  each 
month. 


PART  VI 

FARM  DAIRYING 


y/W. 


Hf/J 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

THE  FARM  MILK  HOUSE 


+A^ 


Any  farmer  with  ten  or  more  cows  used  for  purposes  of 
cream  or  milk  production  can  ill  afford  to  be  without  some  clean 
and  convenient  place  in  which  to  separate  the  milk  and  keep  the 
cream.  The  separator  must  be  housed,  preferably  in  a  place 
free  from  dust  and  away  from  odors.  The  cream-cooling  tank 
which  occasionally  is  found  in  the  yard  by  the  pump,  protected 
from  sun  and  dust  by  old  boards  or  a  door,  would  last  longer 
and  preserve  the  cream  better  if  inside  a  building.  To  keep  the 
cream  cool  in  summer  and  to  prevent  it  from  freezing  in  winter 
are  both  important.  If  we  add  to  these  concrete  advantages  the 
further  fact  that  far  more  pleasure  and  satisfaction  can  be  got 
from  work  when  performed  in  a  more  definite  and  sanitary  way, 
we  have  ample  reason  to  encourage  the  construction  of  modest 
dairy  buildings.  The  cost  will  vary  with  the  requirements,  from 
about  seventy-five  dollars  up,  but  the  interest  on  the  investment 
may  be  many  times  made  during  the  year  through  saving  milk 
or  cream  which  otherwise  would  be  damaged  or  even  spoiled. 

REQUIREMENTS 

Plan  "  A  "  for  Ten  to  Twenty  Cows. — Where  a  separator  is 
turned  by  hand,  milk  fed  out  while  fresh  and  cream  sold  from 
two  to  three  times  a  week,  a  building  need  be  only  10  by  10  feet 
in  size  and  provided  inside  with  a  separator  on  a  deep  founda- 
tion with  a  well  insulated  tank  for  holding  the  cream  in  cold 
water  and  a  small  table  on  which  to  work.  If  it  is  desired  with 
this  to  have  a  small  gasoline  engine  the  building  should  be  made 
about  two  feet  longer,  or  10  by  12  feet,  as  shown  in  plan  "  A." 
It  is  preferable  that  the  engine  be  kept  in  an  adjoining  room. 

The  cost  of  the  material  for  this  house  will  be  approximately 
$90  and  the  labor,  if  done  by  a  carpenter,  about  $50,  or  a  total 
of  about  $140. 

Plan  "  B  "  for  Fifteen  to  Thirty  Cows. — Whenever  twenty 

293 


294  THE  FARM  MILK  HOUSE 

or  more  cows  are  used  in  the  dairy  it  is  highly  desirable  indeed 
that  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  work,  such  as  cleaning  separator  and 
cans,  be  done  in  the  dairy  house  rather  than  in  the  kitchen.  It  is 
also  very  desirable  that  the  well  be  located  in  conjunction  with 
it.  This  will  necessitate  an  engine  for  the  running  of  the  separa- 
tor and  occasional  pumping,  an  upright  boiler,  washing  sink, 
pail  racks,  and  a  Babcock  milk  tester  outfit. 

To  use  this  quantity  of  equipment  a  milk  house  at  least  10 
by  18  feet  will  be  needed  and  one  12  by  20  feet  will  be  none  too 
large  for  convenience.  Plan  "  B  "  is  designed  to  indicate  size  and 
arrangement  of  building  for  plant  of  this  size.  If  the  boiler  or 
water  heater  is  not  installed  the  space  occupied  by  the  boiler 
and  fuel  bin  may  very  conveniently  be  used  as  a  work  bench. 

The  material  will  cost  about  $150  and  the  labor  about  $100 
more,  making  a  total  cost  of  about  $250. 

Plan  "  C  "  for  Twenty-five  to  Fifty  Cows  with  Ice  House 
Attached. — There  are  occasionally  farms  in  which  a  somewhat 
more  efficient,  if  more  expensive,  building  is  desired.  In  plan 
"  C  "  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  end  of  the  milk  house  encloses 
the  base  of  the  windmill  tower  and  that  within  this  space  is 
located  the  boiler,  engine,  and  pump  and  that  on  the  opposite  end 
of  the  building  is  the  ice  house.  This  may  be  of  the  old  sort, 
namely,  of  cheap  lumber  with  the  ice  buried  in  saw  dust;  but 
preferably,  the  ice  house  may  be  insulated  so  thoroughly  that 
the  ice  within  will  keep  well  without  being  covered  by  saw  dust 
or  any  other  material.  The  milk  house  proper  is  set  between  the 
two,  the  engine  house  and  the  ice  house  (Figs.  96  and  97). 

Where  the  milk  house  can  be  located  at  a  distance  not  too 
great  from  the  dwelling  house  it  will  be  found  exceedingly  con- 
venient to  have  a  small  refrigerator  room  built  against  the  side 
of  the  insulated  ice  house  with  conductor  pipes  leading  from  the 
floor  of  the  refrigerator  to  the  floor  of  the  ice  house  and  from 
the  top  of  the  refrigerator  back  into  the  farther  side  and  top  of 
the  ice  room  (Fig.  98).  This  will  provide  a  circulation  of  cold 
air  such  as  to  maintain  a  temperature  of  40  degrees  or  lower 
in  the  refrigerator  room,  providing,  of  course,  it  is  reasonably 
well  insulated,  and  will  at  the  same  time  keep  the  room  dry. 


PLAN  "C"  WITH  ICE  HOUSE  ATTACHED      295 

46 — ©^ -*-f 


296 


THE  FARM  MILK  HOUSE 


The  ice  chute  at  one  side  is  provided  in  order  that  the  ice 
may  be  taken  out  of  the  ice  house  without  exposing  the  cold  inter- 
ior to  the  outdoor  weather.  It  is  also  an  entry  for  the  cold 
room  to  save  waste  of  cold  air.  A  simple  ladder  may  be  con- 
structed on  the  wall  of  the  chute  next  to  the  refrigerator  room. 
A  series  of  doors  in  the  side  of  the  ice  house,  somewhat  after  the 
manner  of  a  silo,  provides  means  for  throwing  the  ice  out.  A 
plank  floor  should  be  made  at  the  bottom  of  the  chute  where  the 
ice  will  be  found  easily  available  for  use  in  the  cream  tank,  or 
ready  for  any  use.  The  ice  house  if  filled  ten  feet  high  will  hold 
about  35  tons  of  ice.  Built  of  wood  with  cement  floor  reasonably 
well  made,  this  building  will  cost  approximately  $400. 


Fig.  97. — Combination  ice,  dairy  and  power  house  on  farm  of  F.  Gruenhagen,  Brainerd, 
Minn.     (Photo  by  author.) 

The  cold  water  tank  for  keeping  milk  and  cream  sweet  is 
about  the  most  important  single  piece  of  equipment  about  the 
dairy.  This  tank  under  most  circumstances  should  be  located  in 
such  a  place  that  all  water  pumped  for  the  stock  shall  first  flow 
through  this  tank  around  the  cans  of  cream  and  milk.  In  this 
way  the  cream  gets  the  "  cold  "  and  the  animals  are  provided 
with  the  more  temperate  water  and  both  are  benefited  thereby. 

Where  eight-gallon  or  ten-gallon  cans  are  to  be  handled  it  is 
wise  where  possible  to  build  the  tank  low  in  the  cement  floor  to 
avoid  excessive  lifting.  The  sides  of  the  tank  may  well  be  built 
up  some  six  or  eight  inches  above  the  floor  level. 


THE  COLD  WATER  TANK 


297 


To  keep  the  cans  from  tipping  when  not  full,  compartments 
may  be  built  by  means  of  galvanized  iron  pipes,  coupled  to 


Fig.  98. — Showing  method  of  insulating  the  walls  in  the  insulated  ice  house.  Repro- 
duced from  "Practical  Cold  Storage,"  by  Madison  Cooper.  (Published  by  Nickerson  and 
Collins  Co.,  Chicago.) 

branch  out  between  the  cans.  Spaces  should  be  of  such  size  as  to 
accommodate  the  ordinary  four-gallon  "  shot-gun  "  can  (eight  to 
nine  inches  in  diameter  and  twenty  inches  high)  and  the  ordinary 


298  THE  FARM  MILK  HOUSE 

ten-gallon  shipping-  can  (fourteen  inches  in  diameter  and  twenty 
inches  high). 

Two-inch  wood  makes  a  good  tank.  The  extra  expense  in- 
curred in  providing  thick  non-conducting  walls  is  soon  repaid  by 
improved  quality  in  the  cream  or  a  saving  of  ice. 

Milk  and  cream  become  sour  and  otherwise  damaged  through 
the  action  of  certain  bacteria.  To  grow  at  all  rapidly,  all  bac- 
teria require  a  temperature  of  at  least  55  degrees  F.  Cream 
keeps  sweet  more  easily  than  milk,  yet  it  will  sour  quickly  if 
allowed  to  stand  at  a  temperature  of  55  degrees  or  warmer.  To 
remain  sweet  for  several  days,  even  very  clean  cream  must  be 
held  at  a  temperature  of  50  degrees  or  lower.  The  ordinary 
kitchen  ice  chest  seldom  cools  to  a  temperature  lower  than  55 
degrees  and  is  more  often  at  60  degrees.  To  keep  milk  most 
efficiently  the  cans  or  bottles  should  be  placed  into  water  in 
which  chunks  of  ice  are  floating  (Fig.  131). 

Deep  well  water  is  usually  cold  enough  in  the  northern 
states  so  that  if  caused  to  flow  around  the  cans  of  cream  the 
temperature  of  the  whole  may  be  very  cheaply  held  low  enough, 
but  when  such  an  arrangement  is  impractical  ice  should  be  used 
in  the  tanks  of  water,  in  which  case  insulation  of  the  tank  is 
especially  desirable. 

A  sterilizer  of  some  sort  is  essential  in  the  production  and 
delivery  of  good  milk  or  cream.  A  steam  jet  through  the  drain 
board  of  the  sink  is  ample  for  most  farm  dairy  needs,  but  a  gal- 
vanized iron  oven,  or  a  tight  room,  preferably  made  of  cement,  is 
a  good  investment,  since  in  these  ovens  all  of  the  dairy  tools  may 
be  subjected  to  the  purifying  influence  of  live  steam. 

LOCATION 

The  milk  room  should  not  be  located  in  the  barn,  but  should 
be  close  to  the  door  through  which  the  milk  can  be  most  con- 
veniently brought  (Fig.  94).  It  is  essential,  however,  that  good 
drainage  be  provided.  It  is  desirable  that  the  space  between  the 
barn  and  the  milk  house  be  sufficiently  wide  to  permit  a  wagon  to 
be  easily  driven  between.  The  sidewalk  leading  from  the  barn 
door  to  the  milk  room  door  may  be  covered  if  desired.  Not 
infrequently  the  entire  space  between  the  barn  and  the  milk 


MATERIAL  AND  CONSTRUCTION  299 

house  is  provided  with  roof  and  concrete  floor,  thus  making  a 
convenient  place  for  the  loading  of  the  milk  wagon,  providing 
such  is  used.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  milk  house  is  not 
located  at  too  great  a  distance  from  the  barn  unless  it  is  towards 
the  calf  stable  and  hog  house,  since  milk  is  such  heavy  stuff  to 
carry.  In  the  location  of  the  building,  as  well  as  with  the 
arrangement  of  the  various  features  within,  the  object  should  be 
to  economize  steps  (Fig.  95). 

MATERIAL  AND   CONSTRUCTION 

The  material  of  which  the  milk  house  is  to  be  made  naturally 
will  vary,  but  in  most  instances  will  probably  be  wood,  though  at 
present  there  is  considerable  use  being  made  of  the  cement  plas- 
ter, stucco  finish.  When  not  inconvenient  the  milk  house  should 
be  made  to  harmonize  in  material  and  color  with  the  other  build- 
ings surrounding  it.  Cement  blocks  are  also  coining  into  use  very 
largely  and  certainly  have  a  place.  Likewise,  hollow  clay  blocks 
are  beginning  to  be  used  to  some  extent  and  like  the  cement 
blocks  have  the  advantage  of  permanency.  In  any  case  the  floor 
of  the  milk  house  should  be  concrete,  made  with  .sufficient  fall 
towards  the  drain  to  insure  the  quick  removal  of  any  water. 

The  cement  foundation  walls  should  be  comparatively  high  to 
keep  the  wood  sill,  if  such  be  used,  well  above  the  constant  moist- 
ure and  the  floor  within  should  be  made  with  round  comers  up  to 
the  top  of  the  foundation  wall,  some  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet 
above  ground.  Above  this  point,  inside  and  over  the  ceiling, 
comparatively  rich  cement  plaster  may  be  used,  but  the  disadvan- 
tage of  this  is  that  fine  bits  of  sand  will  continue  to  fall  on 
whatever  machinery  may  be  situated  below.  It  is  recommended, 
therefore,  that  the  inner  walls  be  made  of  wood  and  then  painted 
heavily,  first  with  a  white  filler,  and  then  with  a  comparatively 
heavy  white  enamel  paint.  This  provides  a  clean  bright  interior, 
permits  shelves  to  be  put  up  where  necessary  and  saves  the  vari- 
ous machines  and  the  cream  below  from  being  sprinkled  with 
sand,  as  would  be  the  case  if  common  cement  plaster  were  used. 

Since  to  work  quickly  and  to  take  pride  in  it  one  must  be  able 
to  see  well,  it  is  necessary  that  a  reasonable  amount  of  light  be 
provided.     There  should  be  at  least  two  windows  in  order  to  pro- 


300  THE  FARM  MILK  HOUSE 

vide  ventilation  when  needed.  These  should  be  well  screened. 
It  will  be  found  convenient  also  in  summer  to  have  heavy  roller 
shades  or  some  other  means  of  darkening  the  room.  This  will 
assist  in  driving  the  flies  out  of  the  place  and  also  in  keeping  the 
room  cool.  No  particular  attention  need  be  paid  to  ventila- 
tion except  in  the  largest  of  the  plants  indicated,  where  a  venti- 
lating flue  should  be  provided  in  wash  room  to  assist  in  drying 
the  room  as  well  as  in  giving  workmen  better  air. 

In  any  milk  house,  especially  in  the  little,  inexpensive  ones 
(Fig.  99),  the  foundation  upon  which  the  separator  is  set  should 
extend  into  the  ground  below  the  frost  line.  This  is  accomplished 
by  setting  posts  upon  which  the  four  legs  of  the  separator  are  to 
stand  and  then  cementing  up  around  them.  If  this  is  not  done 
the  cement  floor  will  heave  with  freezing  sufficiently  to  throw 
the  separator  badly  out  of  line  and  cause  trouble. 

THE  FARM  ICE  HOUSE 

When  it  is  realized  that  cream,  sweet  and  otherwise  of  good 
flavor,  is  worth  from  10  to  20  per  cent  more  than  the  same  would 
be  in  a  stale  condition ;  that  under  the  present  American  farm 
conditions  one  dollar  invested  in  ice  at  the  beginning  of  the 
season  will  return  from  five  to  ten  dollars  in  increased  value  of 
the  cream  for  each  and  every  cow  on  the  f arm,  the  ice  house  will 
become  more  common. 

Water  weighs  62!/o  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot,  ice  57.5  pounds. 
One  ton  of  solid  ice  requires  35  cubic  feet  of  space  or,  as  ordi- 
narily well  packed,  about  50  cubic  feet.  If  the  milk  is  sepa- 
rated immediately  after  being  drawn  and  only  the  cream  cooled, 
one-half  ton  of  ice  will  suffice  to  cool  the  cream  of  one  cow 
for  one  season  of  six  months,  or  allowing  for  usual  melting  and 
other  waste,  one  ton  of  ice  occupying  approximately  50  cubic 
feet  of  space  will  suffice  for  each  cow.  A  herd  of  ten  cows, 
therefore,  would  require  500  cubic  feet  of  ice  space  or  a  building 
which  will  accommodate  a  mass  of  ice  8  X  8  X  8  feet.  Nat- 
urally, if  ice  is  to  be  used  for  household  and  other  purposes, 
extra  accommodation  will  need  to  be  provided. 

The  old  sort  of  cheaply  made  ice  house  (Fig.  100),  which 
consisted  essentially  of  a  bin  of  sawdust  with  a  roof  over  it,  is 


QUESTIONS  301 

wasteful  of  ice  and  an  unpleasant  place  from  which,  to  remove 
ice.  The  heavy  and  disagreeable  nature  of  the  work  of  removing 
the  ice  after  it  is  stored  undoubtedly  has  much  to  do  with  the 
scarcity  of  ice  houses  even  in  our  well-watered  northern  sections. 
Most  of  this  trouble  may  be  easily  avoided  by  the  construction 
of  the  so-called  insulated  ice  house. 


Fig.  99. — Inexpensive  milk  house. 

The  insulated  ice  house  is  one  in  which  the  packing  is  put 
in  the  walls  rather  than  upon  the  ice  itself.  The  ice  is  packed 
clean  and  close  to  the  walls  where  it  will  keep  even  more  per- 
fectly than  when  packed  in  the  ordinary  sawdust  fashion.  Many 
of  the  best,  moderate-sized  creameries  are  now  employing  this 
system  and  it  is  certainly  to  be  recommended  to  the  larger  class 
of  farm  dairies.  The  milk  house  and  the  ice  house  may  be 
built  under  one  roof  which  will  reduce  the  labor  of  use  to  the 
minimum.  See  the  plan  already  given  of  this  type  of  combina- 
tion milk  and  ice  house. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  essentials  of  a  farm  milk  house? 

2.  Where  should  it  be  located  ? 

3.  Of  what  material  should  the  floor  and  lower  walls  be  made? 

4.  How  much  ice  is  required  per  season  of  six  months  per  cow  in  the 

northern  half  of  the  United  States? 

5.  What  is  an  "  insulated  "  ice  house  ? 

6.  How  may   an   insulated   ice   house  and  a  milk  house   be  economically 

combined  ? 

7.  What  does  one  cubic  foot  of  water  weigh? 

8.  What  does  one  cubic  foot  of  ice  weigh  ? 

9.  How  many  cubic  feet  will  one  ton  of  solid  ice  occupy  ? 

10.  How  many  cubic  feet  should  be  allowed  for  each  ton  of  ice  to  be  used? 


302 


THE  FARM  MILK  HOUSE 


. 


'Ice  Door. 


ICC  l6TbKS 

4'3WiM*C.n 

•  ltyorOroj.Si«liiiJ 


Fio.  ICO. — Ice  house,  old  style.  Ice  covered  over  and  around  with  saw  dust.  Repro- 
duced from  "Practical  Cold  Storage,"  by  Madison  Cooper.  (Published  by  Nickerson  and 
Collins  Co.,  Chicago.) 


(yM 


CHAPTER  XXVIII  V^ 

MILK  AND  CREAM  TESTING 

To  produce  milk  or  butter  fat  for  market  most  economically 
and  profitably  it  is  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  important  that  the 
grade  of  milk  be  known  as  it  is  to  know  the  quantity  yielded. 
Milk  testing  7  per  cent  fat  has  nearly  twice  the  food  value  of  one 
testing  3  per  cent  fat,  and  likewise  requires  nearly  twice  as  much 
feed  to  produce  it  (Chapter  XXIII).  There  never  was  a  time 
when  the  dairy  farmers  needed  to  feed  scientifically  more  than  at 
present,  nor  a  time  when  this  could  more  easily  be  done. 

The  dairy  farmer  should  own  a  milk  tester  and  use  it,  chiefly 
because  of  its  aid  in  economical  feeding.  A  second  reason  why 
the  tester  on  the  farm  is  needed  is  that  by  its  means  the  un- 
profitable cows  may  more  promptly  and  accurately  be  singled  out 
for  disposal.  The  man  who  sells  to  the  city  should  be  careful 
never  to  allow  milk  to  go  to  market  which  is  below  the  legal  stand- 
ard in  fat.  Whether  cream  is  shipped  or  drawn  to  local  market 
the  thoroughness  of  skimming  done  by  the  separator  on  the  farm 
should,  from  time  to  time,  be  determined.  It  is  also  convenient 
frequently  to  use  the  hand  tester  to  check  the  accuracy  of  the 
cream  testing  done  in  the  city  or  in  the  local  creamery. 

Easy  to  Learn. — The  process  of  testing  milk  by  the  Babcock 
method  is  not  difficult  to  learn,  nor  to  perform.  Any  bright  boy 
or  girl  of  fifteen  can  readily  learn  to  do  very  satisfactory  work, 
especially  if  shown  once  or  twice  how  to  do  a  few  of  the  more 
particular  pieces  of  work. 

Does  Not  Take  Long. — The  total  time  required  to  make  a 
single  test  of  milk  need  not  be  more  than  fifteen  minutes ;  two 
samples  can  be  tested  nearly  as  quickly  as  one ;  a  dozen  samples 
can  be  tested  in  half  an  hour.  Testing  milk  makes  a  good  "  rainy 
day  job  "  and  may  be  worth  more  than  the  work  which  could  be 
accomplished  ordinarily  during  the  same  length  of  time. 

Equipment  Needed  and  Cost. — A  testing  machine  such  as 
shown  in  figure  109  may  be  obtained  complete  with  glassware 
for  operation  at  from  five  to  six  dollars,  but  such  machines  are 

303 


304  MILK  AND  CREAM  TESTING 

not  to  be  recommended.  The  reasons  for  not  favoring  such  are : 
(1)  The  small  capacity  prolongs  the  time  required  to  do  a 
moderate  amount  of  work  and  greatly  increases  the  likelihood 
that  the  testing  of  the  herd  will  not  often  be  undertaken.  (2) 
The  bottles  are  so  thoroughly  exposed  to  the  air  that  unless  the 
bottle  pockets  are  filled  with  hot  water  the  contents  cool  too 
rapidly  to  permit  either  of  thorough  testing  or  accurate  reading. 
(3)  Test  bottles  do  occasionally  break,  and  if  such  an  accident 
should  occur  in  an  open  machine  the  chances  are  great  that  it 
would  at  least  cost  the  suit  of  clothes  worn,  and  possibly  cause 
greater  damage. 

A  machine  like  that  shown  in  figure  101  with  a  capacity  of 
eight  to  twelve  bottles,  enclosed  with  close-fitting  cast-iron  frame, 
costs  only  ten  to  twelve  dollars,  with  glassware  complete.  It  pro- 
tects the  sample  from  being  cooled  in  the  air ;  protects  the  oper- 
ator from  accident,  and  increases  the  likelihood  of  a  good  test. 

The  glassware  needed  for  the  larger  machine,  constituting 
one  set,  will  consist  of  a  dozen  whole  milk  test  bottles ;  two  or 
more  skim  milk  test  bottles,  and  preferably,  two  cream  test 
bottles,  two  pipettes,  graduated  to  17.G  c.c. ;  one  pair  needle- 
point dividers ;  and  a  few  ordinary  dishes  for  the  pouring  of 
milk,  and  the  handling  of  hot  water.  See  figures  101,  102,  103, 
and  104,  for  illustration  of  the  various  tools  needed. 

Since  glassware  is  liable  to  be  broken  and  is  not  usually 
carried  in  stock  in  villages,  it  is  highly  desirable  that  there  be 
procured  at  least  two  pipettes  and  acid  measures,  and  a  reason- 
able stock  of  test  bottles.  Pipettes  may  be  used  to  measure  the 
acid,  but  it  is  hard  on  the  throat  on  account  of  the  acid  fumes. 

Properties  of  Milk. — Milk  is  essentially  water  in  which  is 
dissolved  a  considerable  quantity  of  milk  sugar  and  a  small 
quantity  of  albumen,  with  casein,  which  is  the  chief  substance 
of  which  cheese  is  made,  present  in  a  fine  suspension,  and  butter 
fat  which  is  present  in  the  form  of  an  infinite  number  of  small 
round  globules.  The  composition  of  milk  differs  greatly  between 
breeds  and  individuals  of  the  same  breed. 

Although  the  protein  (casein  and  albumen)  and  the  ash  are 
far  more  important  in  the  growing  of  calves,  pigs  and  poultry 


MAKING  THE  TEST:  DRAWING  SAMPLE  305 

on  the  farm,  the  fat  is  commercially  the  most  valuable.  Fat  is 
also  the  element  in  which  there  is  the  greatest  variation.  Being 
so  variable  in  amount  and  so  valuable  on  the  market,  it  becomes 
highly  important  that  a  test  made  shall  be  accurately  done. 

Procuring  the  Sample. — If  the  milk  of  a  single  cow  is  to  be 
tested  she  must  be  milked  dry  and  the  milk  thoroughly  stirred, 
preferably  by  pouring  from  one  pail  to  another  before  a  sample 
is  taken.  This  is  necessary  because  the  last  milk,  or  strippings, 
is  anywhere  from  two  to  eight  times  as  rich  as  the  first  milk 


Fig.   101. — Eight-bottle  hand  tester.     Farm  size. 

drawn.  Merely  drawing  the  milk  into  the  bottle  will  not  suffice 
for  the  securing  of  an  accurate  sample. 

If  a  can  or  vat  of  milk  is  to  be  tested  it  must  be1  very  thor- 
oughly stirred  before  the  sample  is  taken.  Fat  will  rise  in  five 
minutes  sufficiently  to  show  variation  between  the  top  and 
bottom  of  a  pail  or  can  of  milk.  So  small  an  amount  of  milk 
as  a  single  ten  gallon  canful  will  contain  over  37,000  cubic 
centimeters.  In  testing  we  use  only  17.6  c.c,  which  is  only  one 
part  in  2162  parts  of  the  whole.  Where  so  small  a  quantity  is 
used  to  determine  the  value  of  so  large  a  mass  it  is  extremely 
important,  indeed,  that  the  small  amount  be  carefully  taken. 

Making    the    Test:    Drawing    Sample. — With    test    bottle 

placed  conveniently  and  safely  and  with  pipette  near  at  hand, 

mix  again  the  sample  of  milk  by  pouring  from  one  cup  or  dish 

to  another,  taking  care  that  the  milk  flows  down  the  side  of  the 

20 


306 


MILK  AND  CREAM  TESTING 


Fig.  102. — Milk  pipettes,     a  has  a  thick  clumsy  tip  which  will  not  enter  a  standard  8  per 
cent  milk  test  bottle,     b  is  very  much  more  serviceable. 

dish,  rather  than  pouring  into  the  center.    This  would  intro- 
duce air  bubbles  and  cause  inaccuracy.     Note  the  ring  of  cream 


MAKING  THE  TEST:  DRAWING  SAMPLE 


307 


\ 


X 


;■ 


Fig.  103. — Acid  measures.  a  is  preferable  to  b  on  account  of  the  flaring  base,  which 
renders  it  less  liable  to  tip  over,  and  the  lip  out  of  which  the  acid  is  pouied  is  not  so  wide 
from  side  to  side,  thus  easier  to  pour  from  without  spilling. 

on  the  side  of  the  container.  This  should  be  carefully  rinsed  off 
by  the  rotary  motion  of  the  milk.  With  pipette  grasped  firmly 
in  the  hand,  as  shown  in  figure  105,  with  thumb  and  two  fingers 
serving  to  hold  the  instrument ;  little  finger  acting  as  guide,  and 
fore  finger  to  be  used  as  a  valve,  draw  the  milk  into  the  pipette, 


308 


MILK  AND  CREAM  TESTING 


Fig.  104. — Milk  test  bottles,  a  is  very  much  preferable  to  b.  First,  in  having  a 
slender  neck,  which  will  permit  of  accurate  reading  of  the  fat;  second,  in  having  sloping 
shoulders.  Fat  will  lodge  under  the  abrupt  shoulder  of  b,  and  thus  reduce  the  reading; 
third,  the  top  of  a  is  not  flaring  as  b.  A  milk  tested  in  duplicate  in  two  bottles  such  as 
these  would  not  read  the  same. 

nearly  to  the  top,  slip  the  fore  finger  over  the  top  of  the  tube  to 
prevent  air  entering.  This  serves  to  hold  the  milk  in  the 
pipette.     Raise  the  charge  and  sample  nearly  to  the  level  of  the 


MAKING  THE  TEST:    DRAWING  SAMPLE 


309 


eyes  and  carefully  release  the  forefinger,  allowing  air  to  enter 
until  the  milk  has  descended  exactly  to  the  scratch  on  the  stem 
of  the  pipette.  Again  close  tightly  with  the  finger  and  transfer 
the  measured  quantity  to  the  test  bottle.  If  the  stem  of  the 
pipette  is  sufficiently  small,  insert  into  the  neck  of  the  test  bottle 
(Fig.  1056)  ;  if  not,  hold  the  bottle  and  pipette  at  an  angle,  as 
shown  at  figure  105.    This  is  done  to  allow  the  milk  to  flow 


Fig.  105. — Filling  milk  test  bottles.  In  a  the  bottle  and  pipette  are  being  well 
handled  where  it  is  necessary  to  hold  them  while  the  pipette  is  being  emptied,  b  shows  a 
preferable  method  of  emptying  the  pipette.  When  the  tip  of  the  pipette  is  slender  enough 
to  enter  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  a  disc  of  rubber  packing  or  cork  may  be  slipped  on  it  and 
the  pipette  allowed  to  drain  by  itself.    Two  or  three  such  pipettes  may  be  used  in  rotation. 

down  the  bottom  side  of  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  while  permitting 
air  to  escape  on  the  upper  side.  The  last  drop  of  milk  should  be 
saved  by  blowing  it  into  the  test  bottle. 

In  testing  a  number  of  samples  care  should  be  taken  to  rinse 
the  pipette  once  by  drawing  the  milk  of  the  next  sample  to  be 
tested  into  the  pipette  and  blowing  it  back ;  otherwise  the  quan- 
tity of  fat  which  sticks  to  the  inside  of  the  pipette  goes  from 


310  MILK  AND  CREAM  TESTING 

one  test  over  to  the  next.  In  going  from  a  high  testing  sample 
to  a  low  testing  sample  one  may  easily  cause  the  reading  of  the 
low  test  sample  to  be  one-  or  even  two-tenths  per  cent  too  high. 

Adding  Acid. — Carefully  measure  out  acid  (temperature 
55  to  65  degrees)  into  the  acid  measure.  A  quantity  exactly 
to  the  scratch  on  the  little  cylinder  will  be  required  if  the  acid  is 
the  right  strength  and  temperature,  and  the  milk  is  not  too 
warm.  Warm  acid  or  a  warm  sample  increases  the  chemical 
action  and  will  cause  a  burning  of  the  sample  unless  checked. 
If  either  is  too  warm  use  slightly  less  acid.  Pour  the  acid 
carefully  down  the  side  of  the  neck,  allowing  the  heavy,  half- 
sticky  substance  to  flow  under  the  milk  rather  than  through  it. 
If  poured  directly  downward  into  the  sample  burning  and  un- 
reliable reading  are  almost  certain  to  follow. 

Mixing  Acid  and  Milk.— By  one  not  especially  familiar 
with  the  process  this  mixing  should  he  done  immediately  after 
the  acid  has  been  added  and  by  all  means  should  be  finished 
quickly  when  once  started.  Care  should  he  taken  not  to  shake 
the  sample  violently,  nor  in  a  perpendicular  direction,  since  this 
would  throw  a  mass  of  coagulated  milk  into  the  neck  of  the 
bottle  where  it  would  be  forced  out  by  the  heat  and  lost,  thus 
invalidating  the  whole  sample.  Shake  the  sample  with  an 
elliptical,  rotary  motion  in  such  a  way  as  to  mix  the  contents 
of  the  bottle  without  throwing  any  of  it  into  the  neck.  Observe 
the  sample  for  an  instant  to  note  the  color.  Allow  it  to  con- 
tinue the  chemical  action  till  a  strong  coffee  color  or  deep  cherry 
red  has  been  reached.  If  the  acid  is  too  strong  or  the  ingredients 
at  such  a  temperature  that  the  mixture  at  this  point  begins  to 
turn  black,  2  or  3  c.c,  a  teaspoonful  of  lukewarm  water  should 
be  added  and  then  mixed.  This  checks  the  action  of  the  acid 
and  prevents  charring.  Care  to  get  both  milk  and  acid  to  the 
favorable  temperature  will  be  time  well  spent,  for  half  the  secret 
of  making  good  tests  is  in  getting  the  right  temperatures. 

Whirling. — When  all  the  samples  to  be  tested  at  one  time 
have  been  gotten  ready  in  manner  just  described,  the  bottles  are 
to  he  placed  in  the  centrifugal  machine,  taking  care  to  balance 
the  load  in  all  cases.     Increase  the  speed  gradually  until  the 


READING  311 

required  force  is  being  developed.  Continue  even,  strong  turn- 
ing for  four  minutes,  when  the  machine  should  be  permitted  to 
stop  of  its  own  accord,  or  gently  retarded  by  hand. 

Adding  Water. — Clean,  soft  water,  just  below  the  boiling 
point  in  temperature,  is  to  be  added,  at  this  point  in  the  process, 
to  each  bottle  in  amount  sufficient  only  to  bring  the  contents  up 
to  the  bottom  of  the  neck.  This  enables  any  curdy  matter 
which  may  be  floating  on  the  heavy  acid  mixture  to  settle  and 
not  clog  the  neck. 

Second  Whirling — Again  the  machine  is  to  be  strongly 
turned  as  before,  for  three  minutes,  and  then  gently  stopped. 

Finish  Adding  Water. — At  this  point  more  hot  water  should 
be  added,  sufficient  to  bring  the  top  of  the  fat  column  to  within 
about  one  inch  of  the  top  of  the  bottle,  care  being  taken  not  to 
run  it  over. 

Third  Whirling — Again  the  machine  should  be  run  two 
minutes  strongly  at  full  speed.  This  last  whirling  is  particu- 
larly necessary  in  removing  or  squeezing  the  water  out  of  the  fat 
column  in  the  neck  of  the  bottle. 

Reading. — Test  bottles  are  graduated  to  agree  with  the 
expansion  of  the  fat  when  at  a  temperature  of  130  to  140  degrees 
(Fig.  106).  In  hand  machines  there  is  a  constant  danger  that 
the  fat  will  be  read  at  so  low  a  temperature  that  it  will  not  in- 
dicate as  high  a  fat  percentage  as  necessary  to  secure  correct 
results.  Furthermore,  the  fat  column  should  be  read  from  the 
bottom  of  the  bottom  meniscus  to  the  extreme  top  as  indicated 
in  the  figure.  Although  there  is  a  depression,  called  the  menis- 
cus, on  the  top  of  the  fat  column  it  has  been  shown  that  the 
quantity  of  fat  which  would  be  required  to  fill  this  depression 
is  equalled  by  the  amount  of  fat  which  regularly  remains  in  the 
bulb  of  a  good  test  bottle,  and  never  enters  into  the  fat  column. 
The  amount  of  fat  in  the  column  is  determined  by  spreading  the 
dividers  from  the  bottom  to  the  extreme  top  of  the  fat  column, 
then  by  placing  the  lower  point  at  zero  and  noting  the  place 
indicated  by  the  upper  point.     The  distances  between  the  fine 


312 


MILK  AND  CREAM  TESTING 


division  on  the  whole  milk  bottles  have  a  value  of  0.2  per  cent 
(Fig.  111). 

Calculating  the  Fat  in  Milk. — Assuming  that  the  milk  to  be 
tested  had  been  thoroughly  stirred  before  sampling  and  that  the 
reading  on  the  test  bottle  shows  4  per  cent,  how  many  pounds 
of  fat  are  there  in  the  total  quantity  %  It  must  be  remembered 
that  the  words  per  cent  or  the  sign  %  indicates  hundredths, 
therefore  in  multiplying  it  is  necessary  to  multiply  the  per- 
centage figure  by  one  hundred,  which  will  make  4.0  per  cent  read 


su* 


CeU«. 


Fig.  106. — The  control  of  temperatures  is  half  the  battle  in  Babcock  milk  testiDg. 
With  some  makes  of  testers  a  common  lamp  may  be  used  to  keep  the  samples  warm.  Excel- 
lent work  can  be  done  even  in  a  cold  room  with  such  an  attachment. 

0.04,  and  likewise  a  reading  of  3.7  per  cent  would  be  written 
0.037. 

If  the  cow  has  yielded  20  pounds  of  milk  which  tests  4  per 
cent  fat,  there  are  in  that  quantity  of  milk,  then,  20  times  0.04, 
which  equals  0.8  pound  of  fat.  Likewise,  40  pounds  testing 
3  per  cent  fat  contains  1.2  pounds  of  fat  (40  times  0.03  equals 
1.2)  ;  and  20  pounds  of  milk  testing  6  per  cent  fat  also  has  in  it 
1.2  pounds  of  fat  (20  times  0.06  equals  1.2). 

A  ten-gallon  can  of  milk  weighs  net  about  85  pounds.     If  it 


COMPOSITE  SAMPLES  313 

tests  3.7  per  cent  the  quantity  of  fat  contained  would  be  equal  to 
85  (pounds  of  milk)  times  0.037  (test)  equals  3.145  pounds 
of  fat. 

Composite  Samples. — A  composite  sample  is  one  made  up 
of  a  number  of  smaller  samples.  If  a  small  quantity  of  the 
milk  yielded  by  a  cow  morning  and  night  for  a  week  be  added  to 
a  glass  jar  and  adequately  preserved,  a  single  testing  of  the 
composite  sample  at  the  end  of  the  week  will  indicate  the  aver- 
age quality  of  milk  produced  by  that  cow  throughout  the  week, 
provided  the  quantity  of  sample  taken  is  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  milk  given.  This  system  is  employed  in  whole  milk 
creameries  where  the  milk  delivered  by  each  farmer  is  thoroughly 
stirred  and  a  small  portion  added  to  the  test  sample,  which  is  held 
for  a  period  of  from  one  to  two  weeks,  and  then  tested.  This 
method  is  convenient  and  economical  of  time,  but  must  be  oper- 
ated carefully  or  expensive  errors  may  be  made. 

A  glass  bottle,  with  large  ground-glass  stopper  (Fig.  107)  is 
by  far  the  most  desirable  sort  of  container  for  the  sample.  The 
two  points  to  be  guarded  in  the  holding  of  the  sample  are:  First, 
the  prevention  of  evaporation  and,  second,  the  prevention  of  the 
loss  of  fat  due  to  its  sticking  in  the  crevices  of  a  rough  cover. 
A  sample  kept  even  half  a  day  in  an  open  dish  like  a  tea  cup  is 
utterly  worthless  as  a  means  of  determining  the  fat  content  of 
the  milk  produced  or  delivered,  since  so  large  a  quantity  of 
water  would  have  evaporated  that  the  remaining  portion  would 
be  too  rich  in  fat.  For  the  same  reason,  but  to  a  less  degree,  a 
bottle  with  a  large  cork  stopper  is  not  to  be  recommended,  some 
water  would  escape  through  and  some  fat  would  cling  to  the 
cork.  Mason  fruit  jars  have  often  been  used.  These  prevent 
evaporation,  but  cause  more  or  less  loss  of  fat  about  the  top.  For 
ordinary  farm  use  they  probably  will  serve  as  well  as  anything 
to  be  found.  In  the  earlier  days  of  creamery  work,  and  to 
some  extent  up  to  the  present,  pint  milk  bottles  with  metal  caps 
which  clamp  more  or  less  tightly  were  employed.  It  has  been 
shown  by  trial  that  the  amount  of  water  which  will  evaporate 
from  such  a  lid  is  very  appreciable,  indeed,  and  that  many  cream- 
eries are  paying  for  more  fat  than  they  actually  receive  on  this 
account.   This  reduces  the  percentage  over-run  on  the  part  of  the 


314  MILK  AND  CREAM  TESTING 

butter  maker  and  occasionally  encourages  him  to  record  a  test 
lower  than  the  actual  reading,  to  recover  in  the  operation. 

If  a  cow  is  being  tested  and  she  yields  30  pounds  of  milk 
for  thirty  days,  she  has  produced  000  pounds  of  milk.  If  this 
is  shown  to  test  3.9  per  cent  fat,  she  will  then  be  given  credit 
with  having  produced  35.1  pounds  of  fat,  whereas  a  glass- 
stoppered  bottle  which  would  prevent  evaporation  of  water  might 
show  her  true  test  to  have  been  3.G  per  cent  fat.  This  would 
credit  her  with  having  produced  only  32.3  pounds  of  butter  fat, 
or  a  difference  of  2.8  pounds  of  fat.  If  the  fat  is  figured  as 
worth  30  cents  per  pound  the  cow  has  been  given  credit  with  hav- 


Fig.    107. — Composite  milk  sample  bottles.     Evaporation  of  moisture  must  be  prevented. 
The  bottle  at  the  right  is  preferable  to  the  fruit  jar. 

ing  produced  84  cents'  worth  of  product  in  one  month  more  than 
she  is  entitled  to.  At  this  rate  each  cow  in  the  herd  would  have 
been  given  credit  during  the  year  with  having  produced  from 
$5  to  $10  worth  of  product  more  than  was  rightly  her  due.  The 
money  value  difference  between  a  true  test  and  one  made  too 
high  by  the  evaporation  of  water  from  the  sample  is  better  shown 
in  the  case  of  the  whole  milk  creameries.  If  a  farmer  have 
twelve  cows  averaging  25  pounds  of  milk  each,  or  300  pounds 
of  milk  per  day,  they  will  in  fifteen  days  produce  4500  pounds 
of  milk.  With  the  fat  percentage  in  error  as  above  mentioned, 
the  farmer  will  be  given  credit  for  having  delivered  13.5  pounds 
of  fat  in  the  15  days,  more  than  he  had  actually  delivered.     If 


PRESERVATIVES  FOR  SAMPLES  315 

the  fat  is  worth  30  cents  a  pound  it  would  amount  to  $4.05,  or 
approximately  $8  a  month.  If  there  are  75  such  patrons,  $600 
per  month  may  easily  have  been  paid  out  to  the  farmers  for  milk 
fat  which  was  never  delivered.  This  is  one  reason  why  some 
creameries  have  great  difficulty  in  maintaining"  an  adequate  or 
even  reasonable  over-run.  The  sample  must  not  only  have  been 
thoroughly  taken,  but  also  have  been  protected  from  evaporation 
of  water  or  mechanical  loss  of  fat  in  order  to  be  of  exact  value. 

Preservatives  for  Samples. — In  order  that  it  shall  not  be 
necessary  to  test  the  milk  immediately  nor  to  test  every  milking, 
preservatives  have  been  brought  into  use  for  the  purpose  of  keep- 
ing the  milk  sweet.  All  milk  preservatives  are  poisonous,  other- 
wise they  would  not  destroy  the  bacteria  and  preserve  the  milk. 
The  best  preserving  substance  to  use  is  corrosive  sublimate,  made 
up  in  tablet  form,  with  the  addition  of  coloring  matter.  The 
preservative  itself  is  colorless.  The  coloring  matter  is  added  to 
insure  safety.  Tablets  of  this  sort  may  be  procured  from  any  of 
the  dealers  in  creamery  supplies. 

Potassium  bichromate  in  powdered  form  is  absolutely  not 
to  be  recommended  for  general  use.  It  unites  with  and  increases 
the  strength  and  action  of  the  acid  and  since  it  is  extremely 
difficult  to  measure  the  powder  with  sufficient  accuracy  to  get 
exactly  the  same  quantity  into  each  sample  bottle,  the  tester  will 
later  be  unable  to  know  how  much  acid  to  add  to  secure  the 
desired  effect.  This  substance  is  now  put  up  in  tablet  form, 
which  increases  the  ease  with  which  it  may  be  used  and  makes  of 
it  a  fairly  satisfactory  preservative.  Care  must  be  exercised, 
however,  in  the  addition  of  the  acid  to  the  sample  that  a  quantity 
less  than  usual  is  added,  and  that  there  is  near  at  hand  some 
warm  water  to  be  added  if  necessary  to  check  the  burning  process. 

Formaldehyde  is  the  safest  of  all  the  preservatives  to  use, 
since  it  gives  off  a  violent  and  disagreeable  odor,  and  therefore  is 
not  likely  to  be  consumed,  and  not  being  a  violent  poison  would 
not  likely  cause  disastrous  results  if  it  were  accidentally  fed 
to  pigs  or  calves.  The  chief  objection  to  its  use  is  the  fact  that 
it  seems  to  toughen  the  casein  in  the  milk  and  render  the  thor- 
ough digestion  by  the  acid  difficult.     It  is  necessary  to  use  more 


316  MILK  AND  CREAM  TESTING 

acid  and  to  shake  more  thoroughly  when  this  preservative  is  used. 

In  all  cases,  regardless  of  what  preservative  has  been  used, 
the  operator  should  use  the  color  of  his  test  as  his  guide  and  not 
merely  the  usual  amount  of  acid. 

Sampling  Sour  Milk. — Xot  infrequently  milk  will  have  be- 
come sour  and  thick  before  the  operator  has  had  opportunity  to 
make  a  fat  determination.  To  reduce  such  a  mass  to  a  fluid 
requires  the  presence  of  some  alkali  to  neutralize  the  acid.  For 
this  purpose  ammonia  is  occasionally  used,  though  a  few  grains 
of  concentrated  lye  dissolved  in  a  very  small  quantity  of  water 
may  be  employed  without  harm.  Various  washing  powders 
such  as  sal  soda  may  also  be  used.  These  strong  alkalies  neu- 
tralize the  acid  and  render  it  easy  for  the  whole  curd  mass  to  be 
shaken  into  a  thoroughly  fluid  condition.  Care  must  be  taken, 
however,  in  shaking  not  to  churn  the  sample,  since,  under  these 
conditions  the  fat  particles  will  assemble  into  masses  very  easily. 
The  acid  should  be  added  slowly  and  cautiously  to  any  sample 
which  has  been  neutralized,  otherwise  the  sample  may  foam 
badly  and  even  boil  out  on  the  hand.  It  is  advisable  also  to  make 
the  test,  at  least  in  duplicate,  to  insure  accuracy. 

Sampling  Churned  Milk. — Occasionally  a  sample  of  milk 
will  be  sent  by  mail  and  upon  arrival  found  to  have  been  churned 
during  transit.  To  obtain  a  correct  sample  of  such  the  entire 
quantity  should  be  heated  to  110  degrees  and  held  until  the  fat 
has  melted,  when  again  the  entire  amount  should  be  violently 
shaken  sufficiently  long  to  form  an  emulsion  of  all  the  ingredients 
present.  The  fat  particles,  however,  will  still  be  very  large 
compared  to  their  size  in  the  original  condition,  and  will  there- 
fore rise  quickly.  The  test  sample  may  preferably  be  pipetted 
out  of  the  stream  while  pouring  the  emulsified  sample  from  one 
dish  to  another.  To  be  reasonably  sure  that  a  correct  test  has 
been  made  at  least  four  samples  should  be  run,  the  entire 
quantity  being  kept  warm  and  shaken  between  each  sampling. 
If,  after  such  treatment,  the  four  samples  show  a  close  agreement 
the  average  may  be  taken  as  the  probable  true  test  of  the  sample. 

Sampling  Frozen  Milk. — When  milk  freezes  the  watery 
portion  crystallizes  into  spines  and  bars  of  ice,  with  a  tendency 


NECESSITY  FOR  WEIGHING  CREAM  317 

to  throw  down  all  substances  in  suspension.  An  application 
of  this  principle  is  seen  in  the  freezing  of  a  shallow  muddy  pond 
or  lake.  The  ice  will  be  far  cleaner  than  the  water  was  before 
the  freezing  started.  The  dirt  will  have  concentrated  down- 
ward. When  a  quantity  of  milk  freezes  the  solid  particles  are 
concentrated  largely  into  the  center,  the  outer  portion  being 
more  largely  the  water  part  of  the  milk.  The  effect  of  such  is 
the  partial  formation  of  the  curd,  into  flakes.  These  floating 
particles  interfere  considerably  with  the  taking  of  an  accurate 
sample.  To  obtain  a  true  sample  it  may  even  be  necessary  to 
weigh  out  18  grams  of  the  thoroughly  warmed  and  poured  sample 
into  the  test  bottle  rather  than  to  measure  it  with  a  pipette. 

Testing  Cream:  Sampling  (Figs.  108  and  109). — Cream 
varies  so  greatly  in  fat  content  and  in  its  fluid  properties  and 
mixes  with  such  difficulty  compared  with  milk  that  much  greater 
care  is  required  to  be  exercised  in  obtaining  an  accurate  sample. 
Cream  will  rise  on  cream  to  such  an  extent  that  the  top  of  a  can 
may  test  35  per  cent  fat  while  the  bottom  contains  only  10  or 
even  5  per  cent  fat.  In  order  to  obtain  a  sample  which  is  at  all 
adequate  in  determining  its  value,  it  is  essential  that  the  cream 
be  either  thoroughly  stirred  from  the  bottom  by  means  of  a 
stirring  device  consisting  of  an  iron  rod  fitted  with  a  strong  disc 
at  the  lower  end  and  by  means  of  which  an  upward  rotary  motion 
in  the  cream  can  be  effected;  or  by  pouring  the  cream  several 
times  from  one  can  to  another.  When  the  cream  is  thoroughly 
mixed,  a  quantity  of  two  to  three  ounces  may  be  transferred  to 
the  sample  bottle  for  future  work. 

Composite  Samples. — Although  sufficiently  accurate  work 
may  readily  be  done  from  composite  samples  of  milk  the  system 
is  not  to  be  recommended  for  cream.  This  is  chiefly  due  to  the 
great  variation  in  fat  content  of  the  cream,  and  also  to  the  vary- 
ing amount  which  is  usually  taken  to  market. 

Necessity  for  Weighing  Cream. — The  Babcock  test  is  based 
upon  the  use  of  eighteen  grams  of  sample  or  some  known  fraction 
thereof.  Since  butter  fat  weighs  only  about  87  per  cent  as  much 
as  milk  serum  and  since  the  fat  content  of  cream  will  vary  all 
the  way  from  12  to  50  per  cent  it  is  evident  that  with  the  various 


318 


MILK  AND  CREAM  TESTING 


grades  different  volumes  of  cream  would  be  required  to  weigh 
18  grams.  A  pipette  graduated  to  carry  17.6  c.c.  will  carry  18 
grams  of  ordinary  milk,  but  the  cream  which  would  be  contained 


Fig.  10S. — Cream  test  bottles,  a  is  preferable  to  h  in  three  points.  The  narrower 
neck  permits  more  accurate  reading  of  the  fat,  the  neck  is  straight,  i.e.,  not  flaring  toward 
the  top,  and  the  shoulders  are  more  sloping. 

in  that  volume  would  weigh  only  15  to  16.5  grams,  depending 
on  its  richness.  It  is  therefore  essential  that  cream  be  weighed 
into  the  test  bottles  and  not  measured  as  in  the  case  of  whole 
and  skim  milk. 


WEIGHING  OUT  SAMPLES 


319 


Another  reason  why  it  is  essential  to  weigh  cream  is  the 
presence  in  the  cream  of  larger  or  smaller  quantities  of  gas. 
Naturally  any  cream  which  has  been  poured  or  stirred  until  it 
contains  a  considerable  amount  of  air  or  other*  gas  will  occupy 
more  volume  for  its  weight  than  it  would  if  it  had  not  been  so 
treated. 

The  kind  of  scales  to  be  recommended  will  vary  with  the 
volume  of  work  to  be  done.  The  finely  adjusted  Torsion  balance 
designed  to  accommodate  two  to  four  bottles  at  a  time  is  exceed- 
ingly sensitive  and  valuable  when  high-class  work  is  to  be  done. 

Weighing  Out  Samples. — It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  warm 
the  bottle  of  cream  to  make  the  cream  flow  more  readily.     A 


Fig.  109. — An  inexpensive  tester,  yet  one  not  to  recommend  for  general  farm  use. 
The  samples  cool  too  quickly  in  this  and  if  a  bottle  were  to  break,  the  acid  would  be  liable 
Jo  do  injury. 

quantity  of  cream  may  then  be  drawn  into  the  pipette  and 
allowed  to  flow  into  the  test  bottle  on  the  scale,  care  being  taken 
that  a  quantity  be  added  sufficient  only  to  bring  about  an  exact 
balance.  In  doing  this,  care  should  also  be  taken  that  no  drop  of 
cream  falls  upon  the  outside  of  the  bottle  or  upon  the  platform 
of  the  scale.  When  the  sample  has  been  weighed  out  it  may 
be  set  aside  to  be  tested  at  any  future  time.  The  water  only  can 
evaporate.  It  is  best,  however,  to  run  out  the  samples  while  they 
are  still  fresh. 


320  MILK  AND  CREAM  TESTING 

Instead  of  using  18  grams  as  indicated,  nearly,  if  not  quite, 
as  accurate  work  can  be  done  by  adding  only  9  grams  of  sample 
and  then  by  doubling  the  reading  secured.  This  is  economical 
of  both  cream  and  acid. 

Adding  Acid. — If  18  grams  of  cream  are  taken  as  sample 
somewhat  less  than  the  usual  measure  of  acid  will  be  required. 
If  a  9-gram  sample  of  cream  is  taken  then  less  than  half  the 
usual  measure  of  acid  will  be  needed.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  so  much  of  the  sample  is  fat  that  there  is  not  as  much 
solids  to  be  dissolved  as  in  the  case  of  whole  milk.  The  test 
bottle  should  be  canted  so  that  the  acid  may  flow  down  the  side 
of  the  neck  as  in  the  case  of  milk.  Likewise  it  is  preferable  to 
mix  them  thoroughly  immediately  upon  the  addition  of  the  acid. 
At  this  point  it  is  necessary  also  to  watch  carefully  the  color  of 
the  sample  (Fig.  110).  The  reddish  color  soon  changes  to  a 
dark  cherry-red,  and  may  assume  almost  a  black  hue.  The 
sample  must  not  be  permitted  to  become  fully  black,  for  if  this 
has  taken  place  considerable  charring  has  been  caused.  To 
prevent  burning  at  this  point,  about  half  a  teaspoonful  of  luke- 
warm water  should  be  added  and  shaken  into  the  sample.  This 
small  amount  of  water  "  kills  "  the  acid. 

First  Whirling. — As  in  the  case  of  milk  the  test  bottles 
should  be  so  placed  in  the  machine  as  to  balance.  They  are 
then  turned  rapidly  according  to  the  size  of  the  machine  (Fig. 
109),  for  fully  five  minutes,  when  the  machine  is  gently  stopped 
or  allowed  to  come  to  rest  of  its  own  accord. 

Adding  Water. — Clean,  soft  water  at  a  temperature  of  about 
190  or  200  degrees  may  now  be  added.  This  is  done  simply 
for  the  purpose  of  bringing  the  fat  up  into  the  neck  of  the  bottle 
where  it  can  be  read.  In  case  of  rich  cream  it  may  be  necessary 
to  fill  the  bottle  nearly  to  the  top,  otherwise,  leaving  a  safety 
space  of  about  an  inch  unfilled.  A  single  filling  is  found  to  be 
sufficient  in  the  case  of  cream,  since  the  work  cannot  be  carried 
on  with  the  same  degree  of  accuracy  as  with  milk  in  any  case. 

Second  Whirling. — This  second  whirling  should  be  done 
strongly  for  fully  four  minutes  to  insure  the  ascension  of  all 


Fig.  110—  A,  CREAM  TEST.  AND  B,  MILK  TEST.    PERFECT  COLOR  FOR 
PERFECT  WORK. 


TRUE  AVERAGE  TEST  OF  CREAM  321 

the  fat  into  the  neck,  and  also  to  insure  separating  the  water 
from  the  column  of  fat. 

The  Use  of  a  "  Reader." — It  will  he  noted,  as  shown  in 
figure  110,  that  the  depression  or  concave  portion  on  the  top  of 
the  fat  column,  in  the  case  of  cream,  amounts  to  considerable. 
The  quantity  of  fat  which  would  be  necessary  to  fill  up  this 
concave  area,  or  meniscus,  is  altogether  greater  than  the  amount 
of  fat  which  remains  in  the  bulb  of  the  bottle;  consequently 
allowance  must  be  made  for  the  depression.  Or  better  still, 
some  substance  like  amyl  alcohol,  colored  red  with  some  dye,  or  a 
lightweight  machine  oil,  as  glymol,  may  be  added  to  flatten  the 
surface.  It  has  been  the  experience  of  the  writer  that  the  oil 
obtainable  varies  considerably  in  weight  and  is  less  reliable  than 
the  alcohol.  The  substance  usually  sold  by  creamery  supply 
companies  is  mostly  amyl  alcohol  colored  with  a  dye. 

Reading  the  Sample. — The  reading  is  done  the  same  as  in 
the  case  of  the  milk.  It  is  a  little  more  important,  however,  that 
a  temperature  of  at  least  130  to  140  degrees  be  maintained, 
since  the  fat  column  is  so  long.  The  reading  should  be  made 
from  the  extreme  bottom  to  the  flat  surface  shown  between  the 
red  reader  and  the  fat,  or  in  the  case  no  "  reader  "  is  used  the 
upper  part  of  the  dividers  should  be  made  to  divide  the  distance 
occupied  by  the  meniscus  about  equally  (Fig.  111). 

It  is  impossible  to  test  cream  to  the  same  point  of  accuracy 
as  that  reached  in  the  case  of  milk.  This  is  due  to  the  wide  neck 
in  the  bottle  which  it  is  necessary  to  use.  Therefore  it  is  found 
that  a  variation  of  one-half  per  cent  in  duplicate  samples  of 
sour  cream  is  not  at  all  uncommon  and  would  almost  be  expected. 

Calculating  the  Fat  in  Cream. — A  ten-gallon  can  will  hold 
about  84  pounds  of  ordinary  cream.  If  this  is  shown  to  test  34.5 
per  cent,  the  quantity  of  fat  in  the  can  is  found  by  multiplying 
84  by  0.345  ;  thus  84  times  0.345  equals  28.98  pounds  of  fat.  An 
eight-gallon  can  will  hold  about  67  pounds  of  ordinary  cream. 
If  the  test  shows  this  to  contain  say  26.5  per  cent  fat  there  will 
be  contained  in  it  a  quantity  of  fat  found  by  multiplying  64  by 
0.265,  or  17.80  pounds  of  fat. 

True  Average  Test  of  Cream. — The  chief  reason  why  it  is 
21 


322 


MILK  AND  CREAM  TESTING 


difficult  and  unsatisfactory  to  try  to  carry  on  composite  samples 
of  cream  for  the  purpose  of  knowing  the  pounds  of  fat  delivered, 
by  means  of  a  single  test,  is  because  the  test  of  the  several  lots 
varies  so  greatly  that  unless  a  sample  be  taken  in  exact  propor- 
tion to  the  quantity  of  cream  delivered,  or  received,  the  effect  of 
this  method  of  delivery  upon  the  sample  will  be  out  of  propor- 
tion. To  illustrate,  suppose  there  be  delivered  to  the  factory, 
four  batches  of  cream  as  follows : 


=—  7 

b      — * 

=—s 

E— z 
«---= — 


Fia.   111. — In  milk  testing  the  fat  should  be  read  from  a  to  b,  not  to  c  nor  to  d,  but 
in  cream  from  a  to  d. 


.  Cream 

Test 

Lb.  Fat 

20 

30 

6.0 

180 

25 

45.0 

70 

40 

28.0 

220 

22 

48.4 

490  117  127.4 

The  false  average  test,  found  by  dividing  117  by  4,  is  29.25  per  cent. 

The  average  test,  found  by  dividing  117  by  4,  is  29.25  per 
cent.  There  will  have  been  delivered  490  pounds  of  cream. 
The  quantity  of  fat  delivered  may  readily  be  found  by  multiply- 
ing the  pounds  of  cream  by  the  test  in  each  and  every  case,  and 
by  adding  the  quantities  of  fat.  Thus  we  see  in  this  case  127.4 
pounds  of  fat  were  delivered.  If  a  composite  sample  had  been 
made  of  these  four  lots  of  cream  and  the  quantity  of  cream  taken 
for  the  sample  had  been  the  same  in  each  case  the  test  of  the 


TRUE  AVERAGE  TEST  OF  CREAM  323 

composite  sample  would  show  the  same  as  the  direct  average  of 
these  four,  or  29.25  per  cent.  That  this  test  is  too  high  is  readily 
seen  when  we  divide  the  actual  quantity  of  fat  127.4  by  the 
quantity  of  cream,  490.  Performing  this  we  see  that  the  true 
average  test,  instead  of  being  29.25  per  cent  is  only  26  per  cent. 
The  direct  or  false  average,  therefore,  is  3.25  per  cent  too  high. 
An  error  of  this  magnitude  operating  upon  490  pounds  of  cream 
throws  an  error  of  15.925  pounds  of  fat.  If  fat  is  being  bought 
at  the  rate  of  30  cents  per  pound  an  over-payment  of  $4.78  has 
occurred  (490  times  0.0325  equals  15.925;  15.925  times  30 
equals  $4.78).  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  any  butter  maker 
who  makes  composite  samples  of  cream  delivered  by  his  patrons  is 
almost  certain  to  make  errors  of  this  sort.  While  in  the  long 
run  and  on  the  various  patrons  there  may  be  a  balance  or  com- 
pensation it  certainly  is  an  inaccurate  and  unreliable  method  of 
computation.  Likewise,  a  farmer,  in  endeavoring  to  check  up 
the  accuracy  and  honesty  of  the  creamery  operatives,  is  more 
likely  than  not  to  make  an  error  of  this  kind,  either  one  way  or 
the  other,  if  he  tries  to  make  composite  tests.  Each  and  every 
can  or  shipment  of  cream  should  be  weighed,  sampled,  and  tested 
by  itself.  It  should  be  remarked  in  passing  that  this  is  the 
practice  with  the  larger  and  better-conducted  creamery  plants. 

Testing  Skim  Milk. — Skim  milk  is  tested  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  whole  milk,  except  that  the  skim  milk  bottle  is  used. 
The  essential  difference  between  the  skim  milk  bottle  and 
the  whole  milk  bottle  is  in  the  size  of  the  tube  or  bore  of  the 
neck.  At  present  most  skim  milk  bottles  are  so  made  that  the 
entire  length  of  the  graduated  scale  equals  one-fourth  of  one 
per  cent  (0.25  per  cent),  and  each  of  the  five  grand  divisions 
of  the  scale  has  a  value  of  five  one^hundredths  per  cent  (0.05 
per  cent).  In  testing  skim  milk  care  must  be  taken  to  make 
sure  that  "no  drop  of  water  or  other  plug  remains  in  the 
graduated  neck  at  the  time  of  pouring  the  milk,  or  the  acid,  into 
the  bottle.  A  drop  of  water  lodged  in  the  neck,  very  frequently, 
indeed  will  cause  the  air  to  bubble  back  against  the  acid  or  milk 
while  being-  poured  down  the  large  neck,  Causing  same  to  spill. 
If  any  portion  of  the  sample  is  wasted,  the  whole  is  lost. 


324  MILK  AND  CREAM  TESTING 

Skim  milk  has  more  solids  not  fat,  for  the  acid  to  digest,  thus 
about  20  c.c.  acid  are  needed  for  17.6  c.c.  of  skim  milk.  A  little 
greater  care  should  also  be  taken  in  mixing  the  acid  with  the 
milk.     All  other  steps  are  the  same  as  with  whole  milk. 

Ordinary  gravity  skim  milk  usually  tests  at  least  0.1  per  cent 
and  frequently  0.50  per  cent.  The  centrifugal  cream  separator, 
properly  adjusted,  will  leave  in  the  skim  milk  a  quantity  of  fat 
so  small  as  to  read  0.02  per  cent  or  less. 

If  100  pounds  of  milk  testing  4  per  cent  fat  is  run  through 
a  separator  there  will  ordinarily  be  produced  20  pounds  of  20 
per  cent  cream.  This  leaves  80  pounds  of  skim  milk.  If  this  is 
found  to  contain  0.03  per  cent  fat  there  will  remain  in  the  80 
pounds  only  0.021  pound  of  fat  (80  times  0.0003  equals  0.021). 
There  is  at  present  no  excuse  for  a  fat  loss  represented  by 
even  so  small  amount  as  0.05  per  cent. 

Testing  Buttermilk. — So  far  as  the  testing  of  buttermilk  is 
concerned  it  is  usually  very  simple,  indeed,  provided  an  accurate 
sample  can  be  taken.  The  difficulty  in  getting  a  sample  is  experi- 
enced because  the  grains  of  butter  are  so  large  that  to  include  one 
in  the  sample  will  manifestly  give  altogether  too  high  a  reading, 
while  to  avoid  all  will  yield  a  fat  reading  evidently  too  low. 

If  the  cream  has  been  properly  ripened  and  has  been  churned 
cold  there  will  usually  be  an  invisible  fat  loss  of  about  0.05  per 
cent,  though  0.1  per  cent  is  not  as  uncommon  as  it  should  be.  It 
is  not  always  easy  to  know  in  advance  whether  to  put  the  sample 
into  a  skim  milk  bottle  or  into  a  whole  milk  bottle.  Xot  infre- 
quently one  of  each  is  used  in  order  that  one  or  the  other  shall 
be  readable. 

Testing  Whey. — Whey  obtained  in  the  making  of  cheese  con- 
tains little  more  than  one-half  of  the  solid  matter  contained  in 
skim  milk  of  the  kind  which  is  attacked  by  the  acid.  The  sugar 
and  the  albumen  only  remain  in  appreciable  amounts.  Since 
the  work  to  be  done  by  the  test  acid  is  only  about  half  as  great  as 
in  the  case  of  whole  milk  the  quantity  of  acid  to  be  used  in  testing 
is  only  about  one-half  as  great. 

Bottles  are  on  the  market  made  expressly  for  the  testing  of 
whey.  They  differ  from  the  ordinary  whole  milk  bottle  only  in 
having  a  bulb  sufficiently  large  to  contain  two  charges  of  whey 


THE  CENTRIFUGE:  KIND  325 

and  one  of  acid.  The  graduated  neck  is  also  only  about  half  as 
long  as  in  the  case  of  whole  milk.  The  fat  test  obtained  is  then 
divided  by  two,  since  twice  the  18  grams  of  sample  had  been 
taken.  Whey  may  be  tested,  however,  in  the  ordinary  whole 
milk  bottles  with  fair  accuracy  by  using  17.6  c.c.  of  sample  and 
about  one-half  the  usual  charge  of  acid. 

Some  fat  is  always  lost  in  cheese  making,  that  is,  lost  to  the 
cheese.  At  present  this  is  frequently  recovered  by  the  separa- 
tion of  the  whey  by  means  of  a  cream  separator,  modified  for 
the  purpose.  The  fat  then  is  made  up  into  "  whey  butter." 
Whey  should  not  test  more  than  one- fourth  of  one  per  cent  (0.25 
per  cent),  though  0.3  per  cent  is  a  rather  more  common  loss. 

Testing  Cheese — Ordinary  cheese  may  be  tested  for  fat  by 
means  of  the  Babcock  method.  This  is  best  accomplished  by  secur- 
ing a  representative  sample  of  the  cheese  in  question  by  trim- 
ming off  the  outside,  dryer  portion,  using  only  the  uniformly 
moist  center.  This  may  then  be  cut  into  fine  bits,  on  paper,  and 
nine  grams  weighed  out  as  in  cream  testing.  To  the  bottle  con- 
taining the  crumbs  of  cheese  about  six  c.c.  of  hot  water  should  be 
added.  The  whole  mass  is  then  stirred  or  shaken  until  warmed 
throughout  and  softened.  Ordinary  testing  acid  is  then  added, 
little  by  little,  mixing  and  watching  for  color  until  the  right 
shade  has  been  reached.  A  little  more  lukewarm  water  should 
then  be  added  to  check  further  charring.  The  sample  then  is 
run  out  the  same  as  cream  or  milk.  The  amount  of  fat  will  be 
found  by  doubling  the  reading  obtained,  since  only  nine,  instead 
of  eighteen  grams  of  sample  were  used. 

The  Centrifuge:  Kind. — There  are  several  milk-testing 
machines  on  the  market  that  have  proven  themselves  thoroughly 
serviceable.  Aside  from  favoring  the  heavier  and  enclosed 
machine  already  indicated  the  writer  has  no  particular  choice, 
provided  the  machine  is  to  be  used  in  a  warm  room.  If,  how- 
ever, the  testing  outfit  is  to  be  placed  in  tBe  ordinary  milk  room 
where  the  air  is  often  cold,  a  machine  provided  with  an  opening 
below,  through  which  or  into  which  the  chimney  of  a  small  kero- 
sene lamp  can  be  inserted  is  preferable  to  the  machine  tightly 
closed  below.  It  is  essential  that  the  samples  be  kept  thoroughly 
warm,  even  hot,  not  only  at  the  time  of  reading  the  fat,  but  dur- 


326  MILK  AND  CREAM  TESTING 

ing  the  whirling  process.  Hot  water  in  the  machine  is  a 
nuisance  and  does  very  little  good.  On  the  other  hand,  a  little 
kerosene  stove  arranged  under  the  tester  as  shown  in  figure  106, 
has  been  found  to  give  excellent  results,  regardless  of  the  tem- 
perature of  the  work-room. 

Size. — A  tester  which  will  hold  at  least  8  bottles,  or  in  case 
of  a  herd  of  15  or  20  cows,  12  bottles  will  be  found  preferable 
to  anything  smaller.  The  slight  increase  in  cost  will  be  readily 
made  up  by  the  increased  rate  with  which  the  work  is  done. 

Speed. — The  number  of  revolutions  required  to  produce  the 
required  force  in  the  machine  varies  with  its  diameter.  The 
following  table  shows  the  number  of  revolutions  needed  for 
machines  when  the  revolving  portion  has  the  diameter  indicated.1 


>iameter  of  Wheel 

No.  revolutions  per  minute 

10 

1074 

12 

980 

14 

909 

16 

848 

18 

800 

20 

759 

22 

724 

24 

893 

Longer  turning  with  lower  speed  will  not  produce  the  effect 
of  high  speed.  It  will  neither  force  the  small  fat  globules  out 
of  the  bulb  of  the  test  bottle  into  the  neck,  nor  will  it  squeeze  the 
water  out  of  the  fat,  back  into  the  lower  portion  of  the  bottle  as 
will  be  done  with  high  speed.  It  is  essential,  therefore,  that  the 
machines  be  placed  on  a  thoroughly  sound  foundation  and  set 
level  and  run  at  full  speed. 

Temperature. — So  necessary  is  it  to  have  a  reasonably  warm 
temperature  in  the  machine  that  the  power  or  factory-size 
machines  are  usually  provided  with  a  direct  steam  inlet.  Samples 
may  then  be  warmed  before  or  during  the  whirling  and  kept  hot 
until  the  fat  percentages  have  been  read.  With  the  hand  machine 
the  same  effect  can  be  obtained  by  having  a  lamp  placed  as 
previously  described  (Fig.  106). 

Care  of  the  Machine — It  may  be  almost  useless  to  state  that 

1  Testing  Milk   and   its   Products,   Farrington   and   Woll. 


TO  DETERMINE  STRENGTH  327 

this  machine,  like  any  other,  requires  being  kept  well  oiled.  Too 
liberal  oiling  while  in  motion,  however,  may  cause  particles  of 
fat  to  be  thrown  into  the  tops  of  the  test  bottles,  thus  introducing 
a  very  appreciable  error. 

In  case  of  an  accident  causing  acid  to  be  spilled  inside  of  the 
iron  frame,  it  is  very  unwise  indeed,  to  allow  it  to  remain.  All 
broken  glass  and  every  vestige  of  acid  should  be  cleaned  out 
immediately  and  thoroughly,  otherwise  the  acid  will  continue 
slowly  to  act  upon  the  iron,  releasing  fine  dust-like  particles 
very  disagreeable  to  breathe.  The  machine  also,  it  may  be  known, 
will  be  rusted  or  corroded  out  rapidly  under  such  conditions. 

Acid :  Kind — The  acid  used  in  the  Babcock  test  is  the  com- 
mercial sulfuric.  The  commercial  quality  is  much  cheaper  in- 
deed, than  the  pure,  yet  its  impurities  do  not  introduce  any  error 
in  the  test.  In  case  it  becomes  necessary  to  procure  testing  acid 
from,  or  through  a  drug  store,  it  is  wise  to  insist,  not  only  on 
sulfuric  acid,  but  for  the  commercial  grade.  Pure  acid,  in 
addition  to  being  far  more  expensive  than  is  needed,  is  altogether 
too  strong  to  be  used  with  comfort  or  safety. 

Strength  of  Acid. — Commercial  sulfuric  acid  has  a  specific 
gravity  of  about  1.82,  or  in  other  words,  is  1.82  times  as  heavy 
as  water.  Pure  acid  is  heavier.  The  commercial  grade  is  often 
spoken  of  as  90  per  cent  strength.  Thus  in  purchasing,  the 
buyer  has  amply  described  the  article  wanted  by  calling  for  com- 
mercial sulfuric,  specific  gravity  1.82  or  90  per  cent  strength. 

To  Determine  Strength. — The  commercial  acid  is  compara- 
tively cheap  and  varies  in  strength,  not  greatly,  but  sufficient  to 
interfere  with  the  test  made  unless  a  little  more  or  less  of  the 
acid  is  used,  according  as  it  is  needed.  There  are  simple  devices 
on  the  market  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  strength  of  the 
acid  but  these  are  easily  broken,  and  after  all,  no  more  reliable 
than  a  simple  test  or  trial  of  the  acid  in  question  would  be.  To 
test  a  new  quantity  of  acid,  thoroughly  mix  a  sample  of  sweet 
milk  and  load  into  four  bottles  and  number  them.  Into  bottle 
No.  1  add  three-quarters  of  the  usual  quantity  of  acid ;  into  bot- 
tle No.  2,  seven-eighths ;  into  bottle  No.  3,  the  usual  or  ordinary 
quantity  as  indicated  by  the  acid  measure,  and  into  bottle  No.  4, 
a  quantity  of  acid  slightly  greater  than  the  amount  indicated 


328  MILK  AND  CREAM  TESTING 

with  the  measure.  When  these  have  been  run  out  in  the  usual 
manner  the  quantity  of  acid  used  in  the  test  showing  up  best, 
will  be  nearly,  if  not  quite,  the  quantity  thereafter  to  be  used 
with  that  particular  shipment  of  acid. 

Care  of  Acid. — Sulfuric  acid  has  a  very  great  affinity  for 
water.  If  the  bottle  is  left  uncorked,  moisture  will  be  taken  in 
from  the  air  continually  and  far  more  rapidly  than  one  would 
suspect.  Such  diluted  acid  may  even  have  lost  its  strength  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  become  useless  in  testing.  A  rubber  plug  should 
be  used  in  preference  to  one  made  of  cork,  though  one  made 
of  glass  is  best.  If  the  ordinary  cork  is  used  for  even  a  few 
days,  particles  of  charred  substance  will  be  found  floating  in  the 
acid  and  will  introduce  slight,  annoying  errors  in  the  test  made. 
Xeither  light,  nor  heat,  nor  cold  affects  the  acid,  provided  it  is  not 
used  when  too  hot  nor  too  cold. 

•  Temperature  to  Use — Hot  or  warm  acid  is  far  more  active 
than  the  same  when  cool.  Many  samples  of  milk  have  been 
charred  from  using  acid  which  had  stood  around  the  dairy  room 
in  summer  and  used  without  first  being  cooled.  For  best  results 
the  milk  and  the  acid  should  not  have  a  temperature  much  below 
55  nor  above  65  degrees*  F.  It  is  often  desirable,  therefore,  to 
keep  the  acid  in  the  basement  ice  chest,  or  to  set  into  cold  water 
for  a  time  before  using. 

Water. — If  hard  water,  that  is  water  containing  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  lime,  is  used  there  is  great  likelihood  indeed, 
that  chemical  reaction  following  will  cause  a  moss-like  mass  to  be 
formed  in  the  neck  of  the  bottle  through  which  fat  will  be  dis- 
tributed. It  will  be  manifestly  incorrect  to  include  all  of  the 
foreign  substance  as  fat,  yet  to  exclude  all  of  it  introduces  a 
yet  greater  error. 

Soft  water,  that  is,  rain  water  or  snow  water,  or  better  yet, 
condensed  steam  will  be  found  most  desirable.  In  case  it  is 
impossible  to  obtain  such  soft  water,  ordinary  hard  water  may  be 
treated  in  such  a  way  as  to  purify  it  and  yet  not  introduce  an 
error  in  the  test.  This  is  best  done  by  adding  a  small  quantity 
of  hydrochloric  acid  to  the  water.  If  no  hydrochloric  acid  is 
obtainable  ordinary  sulfuric  or  testing  acid  may  be  used 
instead.     One  acid  measure  of  acid  mixed  with  half  a  pint  of 


CLEANING  GLASSWARE  329 

water  has  been  found  ample  to  prevent  the  disturbance  due  to 
lime  in  the  water  used. 

Hot  water  is  necessary  to  be  added  to  the  test  bottles.  If  it 
is  impossible,  or  exceedingly  difficult  to  get  good  hot  water  where 
needed,  any  water  may  be  made  hot  by  the  addition  of  a  quantity 
of  testing  acid  equal  to  about  one-quarter  of  the  volume  of  water 
used.  The  acid  will  make  the  water  hot,  yet  will  not  produce 
any  undesirable  effects  in  the  test.  The  writer  has  often  em- 
ployed this  method  of  securing  purified  hot  water  where  ordi- 
nary hot  water  could  not  be  obtained. 

It  is  necessary  too,  for  best  work,  that  the  water  be  clean  of 
the  ordinary  organic  impurities,  such  as  would  be  introduced  by 
using  an  uncleaned  pipette  for  the  addition  of  the  water  to  the 
test.  Milky  water  thus  added  produces  a  dull  gray  cloud  below 
or  through  the  fat,  and  to  that  extent  renders  the  read- 
ing unreliable. 

Cleaning  Glassware. — The  glassware  used  in  testing  is  not 
difficult  to  clean  if  the  washing  is  done  at  once,  while  everything 
is  fresh,  but  if  the  milk  is  allowed  to  become  dry  in  the  pipette,  or 
the  residue  of  the  test  has  been  allowed  to  harden  in  the  test  bot- 
tle the  cleaning  process  will  be  many  times  more  difficult. 

The  first  and  most  important  step  in  the  cleaning  of  the  bot- 
tles is  to  empty  them  while  they  are  still  hot  and  to  shake  the  con- 
tents vigorously  so  that  the  gray-white  sediment  noticeable  in  the 
bottom  of  the  bottle  will  be  thoroughly  removed.  The  sediment 
referred  to  is  the  milk  ash.  It  is  insoluble  in  water  and  if  per- 
mitted to  dry  and  harden  in  the  bottom  will  be  difficult  to 
remove,  but  may  very  easily  be  shaken  out  while  the  sample  is 
fresh.  All  the  bottles  to  be  washed  should  then  be  rinsed,  set  up- 
right and  into  them  sprinkled  a  quantity  of  strong  washing  pow- 
der. Water  as  hot  as  the  hands  can  bear  should  then  be  intro- 
duced and  the  neck  cleaned  inside  and  out  by  means  of  a  cyl- 
indrical bottle  brush  made  for  the  purpose.  After  being  thus 
cleaned  all  the  glassware  should  be  rinsed  well  with  hot  water  to 
give  the  glass  a  gloss  and  a  clean  feel. 

Ordinary  soap  should  not  be  used  in  the  cleaning  of  such 
glassware,  as  the  chemical  action  which  takes  place  with  the 
sulfuric  acid  and  the  ingredients  of  the  soap  is  such   as  to 


330  MILK  AND  CREAM  TESTING 

form  a  sticky  resinous  deposit  on  the  bottles  which  is  hard 
to    remove. 

ERRORS  TO  AVOID  IN  TESTING 

The  following  are  the  chief  causes  of  inaccuracy : 

1.  Gross  sample  not  a  true  one,  because 

(a)  Cream  sour  and  clotted. 

(b)  Cream  dried  on  surface. 

(c)  Cream  partly  churned. 

(d)  Cream  good,  but  not  well  mixed  before  sampling. 

2.  Test  bottle  sample  not  correct  because 

(a)  Cream  measured  instead  of  weighed.      (18  grams  required.) 

(b)  Cream  weighed  with  inaccurate  scales.  (Keep  all  bearings  free 
from  rust  and  gum.) 

(c)  Of  slovenly  work  in  weighing. 

3.  Aoid  mistakes — 

(a)  Too  much  or  too  strong  acid   (burns  fat). 

(b)  Too  little  or  too  weak  acid  (leaves  white  curd  under  the  fat). 

(c)  Acid  too  warm  (burns  fat:  60  to  (55  degrees  F.  works  best). 

(d)  Acid  poured  through  cream    (burns  in  clots). 

(e)  Acid  not  well  mixed  when  shaking  is  commenced  (burns  in  clots) . 
(Four  or  five  c.c.  lukewarm  water  will  check  acid  action). 

4.  Mistakes  in  whirling. 

(a)  Speed  too  slow.     (Fails  to  secure  all  the  fat  or  to  dry  the  fat.) 

(b)  Not  turned  long  enough   (5  or  6  minutes  necessary). 

(c)  Bottles  too  cool  while  turning  (fat  cannot  rise;  should  be  180  to 
200  degrees  F.). 

5.  Mistakes  in  adding  water — 

(a)  Water  too  cool  (190  to  200  degrees  F.  right). 

(b)  Water  dirty   (causes  gray  cloud  below  fat). 

(c)  Water  hard  (the  lime  in  hard  water  often  causes  unreliable 
results ;  use  rain  water  or  condensed  steam ) . 

6.  Mistakes  in  reading  fat — 

(a)  Reading  too  hot  (fat  expanded;  130  to  140  degrees  F.  right). 

(b)  Reading  too  cold   (fat  contracted,  not  volume  enough). 

(c)  Upper  surface  of  fat  not  leveled  (a  few  drops  of  amylic  alcohol 
on  top  of  fat  makes  a  flat  surface  of  the  concave  one.  This  is 
used  on  cream  only). 

7.  Inaccurate  graduation  of  test  bottles — 

(a)   Every  bottle  should  have  been  tested. 

When  so  small  a  quantity  of  cream  has  to  represent  so  large  a 
quantity,  it  is  exceedingly  important  that  every  step  in  the 
process  be  performed  with  the  utmost  care. 


QUESTIONS  331 

Strength  of  Sulfuric  Acid. — The  strength  of  acid  holds  a 
definite  relation  to  its  specific  gravity,  as  shown  below : 

Sp.  g:.  Per  cent  strength 

1.841  97 

1.840  96 

1.839  95 

1.837  94 

1.834  93 

1.830  92 

1.825  91 

1.820  90 

1.815  89 

1.808  88 

QUESTIONS 

1.  When,  where  and  by  whom  was  the  Babcock  test  invented  ? 

2.  Why  do  we  use  a  17.6  c.c.  pipette  for  testing  milk? 

3.  What  is  the  specific  gravity  of  normal  milk? 

4.  What  is  the  specific  gravity  of  normal  cream? 

5.  What  is  the  specific  gravity  of  butter  fat  ? 

6.  Give  the  name,  specific  gravity,  and  strength  of  the  acid  used  in  testing. 

7.  How  much  acid  should  be  used  when  testing  milk? 

8.  Should  a  milk  sample  be  mixed  at  once  after  adding  acid? 

9.  What  should  be  the  temperature  of  milk  for  testing? 

10.  Should  the  test  bottles  be  kept  warm  while  in  the  tester? 

11.  How  should  a  milk  test  be  read? 

12.  Describe  the  appearance  of  a  perfect  test. 

/    13.  Wherein  and  why  does  the  testing  of  cream  differ  from  that  of  milk  ? 

14.  How  would  a  cream  test  be  read?     Why? 

15.  How  would  you  test  skim  milk? 

16.  How  much  acid  would  you  use  in  testing  skim  milk? 

17.  How  would  you  test  whey? 

18.  How  would  you  test  buttermilk?  '*s- 

19.  How  would  you  test  cheese? 

20.  How  would  you  test  sour  milk  ? 

21.  What  would  you  do  if  the  water  were  very  hard?  , 

22.  How  would  you  determine  whether  the  acid  was  of  proper  strength? 

23.  Would  chemically  pure  acid  give  better  results? 

24.  Would  it  change  the  reading  of  a  test  to  run  the  tester  too  fast? 

25.  What  style  of  test  bottle  is  best  for  testing  milk? 

26.  What  color  should  the  testa  be  just  before  they  are  put  in  machines  ? 

27.  What  can  be  done  in  case  they  are  getting  too  dark? 

28.  Would  a  closed  machine  do  better  work  than  an  open  one? 

29.  How  may  a  hand  tester  be  heated  on  the  farm? 

30.  What  is  a  centrifuge? 


CHAPTER    XXIX 
CREAM   SEPARATION 

The  centrifugal  cream  separator  is  to  the  dairyman  what 
the  reaper  is  to  the  grain  grower,  a  harvester  in  fact  (Figs.  112 
and  116). 

ZMilk  fat  has  a  specific  gravity  of  about  0.90  and  skim  milk 

*  about  1.036.     Therefore,  the  fat  weighs  87  per  cent  as  much  as 

the  skim  milk  or  milk  serum  in  which  it   is  floating.      The 

globules  of  fat,  too,  are  so  small,  being  only  about  M!o>ooo  of  an 

inch  in  diameter,  that  they  rise  slowly  and  with  difficulty  in  milk. 

For  cream  to  rise  naturally  and  even  reasonably  well  the 
milk  must  be  kept  cool  and  left  undisturbed  for  about  twenty- 
four  hours.  Even  then  there  will  be  a  loss  of  butter  fat  of 
between  0.25  and  0.50  per  cent  in  the  skim  milk. 

If  a  herd  of  ten  cows  yields  an  average  of  5000  pounds  of 
milk  yearly,  and  the  skim  milk  tests  0.40  per  cent  fat,  there  will 
be  a  loss  and  virtual  waste  of  about  160  pounds  of  butter  fat. 
This  at  30  cents  a  pound  is*. worth  $48,  or  nearly  enough 
to  pay  for  a  good  cream  separator. 

Tljis  machine,  now  so  common  on  the  farms  of  the  northern 
and  eastern  states,  is  finding  its  way  onto  the  farms  of  the 
southern  states  also,  as  fast  as  livestock  farming  takes  the  place 
of  cotton  growing.  J'    .. 

The  centrifugal  cream  separator  leaves  only  from  0.01  to  0.03 
per  cent  of  fat  in  the  skim  milk,  yet  it  is  based  on  the  same  princi- 
ple that  operated  in  the  case  of  gravity  creaming,  namely :  The 
difference  in  the  weight  per  volume  of  the  two  substances,  the 
milk  fat  and  the  milk  serum.  This  is  known  as  specific  gravity. 
The  high  speed  of  the  bowl  throws  the  milk  out  against  the  wall 
with  a  force  of  from  80  pounds  in  the  smaller,  slower-running 
machines  to  as  much  as  200  pounds  per  square  inch  with  even 
the  larger  hand  separators.  The  fat  is  thereby  literally  squeezed 
inward  while  trving  to  %■  ^outward,  because  the  serum  being 
332 


VARIATION  OF  CREAM  TESTS 


333 


heavier  is  thrown  outward  with  a  yet  greater  force.  As  the  bowl 
fills  from  the  hopper  above  it  naturally  overflows,  the  skim  milk 
escapes  from  the  openings  that  lead  from  the  wall,  and  the  fat, 
mixed  with  enough  milk  serum  to  make  it  flow,  escapes  as  cream 
from  an  opening  which  leads  from  near  the  center  of  the  bowl. 

To  make  a  richer  cream  the  normal  way  is  to  change  the 
relative  positions  of  the  two  outlets,  moving  the  cream  screw 
inward  or,  in  some  machines,  moving  the  skim  milk  screws  out- 


Fig.  112. — There  are  many  makes  of  hand  cream  separators  having  value.    This  illustrates 
a  few  of  those  used  at  the  Minnesota  School  of  Agriculture. 


ward.  This  makes  the  bowl  carry  more  milk,  increases  the  force, 
that  is,  the  squeeze,  and  results  in  a  richer  cream — and  vice  versa. 

r  Why  do  cream  tests  vary  so  from  the  same  machine?  " 
This  question  has  been  asked  and  variously  answered  a  great 
many  times  but  is  still  a  live  question.  The  following  are  the 
chief  causes  of  unintentional  variation  in  the  fat  content  of  hand 
separator  cream  as  sent  to  market : 

1.  Speed  of  the  separator. — The  faster  the  bowl  revolves, 
the  richer  the  cream  will  be.  Slow  turning  is  one  cause  of  thin 
cream,  though  some  makes  of  separators  are  more  sensitive  to 
this  influence  than  others.     A  woman  or  a  child  often  is  not 


334  CREAM  SEPARATION 

strong  enough  to  produce  a  rich  cream.  Letting  down  the  speed 
of  the  handle  from  60  to  45  revolutions  per  minute,  cuts  the  force 
down  nearly  a  half. 

2.  The  amount  of  dirt  in  the  bowl. — As  the  slime  accumu- 
lates in  the  bowl,  the  cream  becomes  thinner  but  there  will  be 
more  of  it.  There  may  not  be  an  increased  fat  loss  until  long 
after  the  cream  has  begun  to  run  thin. 

3.  Rate  of  inflow  of  milk. — The  faster  the  milk  goes  in,  the 
thinner  the  cream  will  be.  If  the  milk  hopper  is  kept  full  all  the 
time,  the  cream  will  test  less  than  it  will  if  the  machine  is 
allowed  to  run  empty  occasionally. 

4.  Per  cent  of  fat  in  the  milk. — A  rich  milk  yields  a  richer 
cream  than  a  thin  milk,  even  when  the  separator  is  run  exactly 
the  same  in  the  two  cases.  Rich  cream  for  whipping  can  easily 
be  produced  by  turning  some  of  the  cream  just  separated  back 
into  the  milk  to  come  through  a  second  time. 

5.  Temperature  of  the  milk  when  separated. — Cold  cream 
is  thicker  and  more  sticky  than  warm  cream  and  when  flowing 
out  of  the  bowl  drags  along  the  sides  of  the  cream  screw  and 
effects  a  change  in  relative  points  of  outflow  of  skim  milk  and 
cream,  thereby  causing  a  richer  cream  to  be  delivered  when  the 
milk  is  cold  than  when  it  is  warm.  To  do  best  work,  most 
machines  require  a  milk  temperature  of  75  degrees  or  above. 

6.  Cream  will  rise  on  cream. — Cream  that  has  stood  a  few 
hours  will  be  much  richer  at  the  top  than  towards  the  bottom. 
If  the  top  be  poured  off  to  make  butter  at  home,  the  portion 
sold  will  be  thinner  than  the  average. 

Efficiency  in  Skimming. — The  quantity  of  fat  lost  in  the 
skim  milk  from  centrifugal  cream  separators  is  largely  a  con- 
trollable matter.     The  chief  factors  are  as  follows : 

1.  Speed  of  the  Machine. — The  thoroughness  of  skimming 
or  completeness  of  the  removal  of  the  fat  is  a  result  of  force  act- 
ing through  time.  If  more  force  is  applied  a  shorter  time  will 
be  required,  or  in  other  words,  the  milk  need  not  remain  in  the 
machine  so  long  to  have  the  same  work  done  upon  it  It  there- 
fore may  be  put  through  more  rapidly.  If  the  flow  through  the 
machine  is  held  constant,  however,  the  effect  is  toward  a  more 


CARE  OF  THE  MACHINE  335 

thorough  skimming.  Some  of  the  very  close  skimming 
machines  get  that  ability  from  the  very  high  speed  at  which  the 
bowl  is  spun. 

2.  Temperature  of  Milk. — Warm  milk  is  more  fluid  than 
cold  milk  and  less  viscid.  Therefore,  with  any  given  speed  of 
bowl  and  flow  of  milk  the  small  fat  globules  are  going  to  be 
most  fully  recovered  or  captured  in  the  milk  which  is  warm. 
The  same  very  small  fat  globules  which  would  rise  slowly  and 
with  difficulty  under  the  old  gravity  system  will  be  the  most 
difficult  to  recover  mechanically,  therefore  require  a  warm 
fluid  milk. 

3.  Nature  of  the  Milk. — The  milk  of  some  breeds  of  cows 
contains  fat  globules  of  smaller  size  than  that  of  others.  The 
large  globule  milk  will  skim  slightly  more  easily,  but  not  enough 
to  notice  in  practice. 

Stripper  cows  yield  milk  which  is  more  viscid  or  slightly 
thicker  than  fresh  cows.  Such  milk  should  have  both  a  warm 
temperature  and  full  speed  for  thorough  work. 

Dry  feed,  that  is  hay  and  fodder  in  winter,  without  silage 
or  roots  tends  also  to  increase  the  difficulty  of  skimming.  Milk 
yielded  on  grass  separates  more  easily  than  winter  milk. 

Goats'  milk  is  said  to  be  very  difficult  to  separate. 

4.  Steadiness  of  Bowl. — The  cream  within  the  bowl  is  flung 
outward  with  considerable  force,  therefore  lies  close  against  that 
part  of  the  whole  mass  which  will  eventually  be  delivered  as 
skim  milk.  This  being  time,  there  must  be  a  fine  line  between 
the  cylindrical  sheet  of  milk  and  cream  which  any  vibration  will 
tend  to  destroy.  A  trembling  bowl  cannot  skim  as  well  as  the 
same  would  if  it  ran  smoothly. 

A  solid  foundation  and  a  perfectly  level  setting  are  essential 
to  best  work.  In  northern  sections  it  is  advisable  to  set  one 
large  or  four  smaller  posts  into  the  ground  deep  enough  to  go 
below  the  frost  line  to  prevent  the  separator  being  thrown  out  of 
line  by  the  heaving  or  bulging  of  the  cement  floor  in  winter. 

5.  Care  of  the  Machine — Many  or  most  cream  separators 
are  neglected.  Water  or  milk  is  allowed  to  gain  access  to  the 
gear  box  and  to  remain  until  the  cogs  have  rusted.     Poor  oil  is 


336  CREAM  SEPARATION 

too  often  used  and  not  enough  of  any  sort.  Those  machines  that 
have  the  horizontal  speeding  devices  especially  need  attention  in 
the  matter  of  oiling.  Care  should  always  be  taken  to  keep  all 
oil  caps  working  freely.  Dust  should  be  kept  from  blowing  into 
the  bearings. 

All  starting  should  be  done  gradually  to  save  strain  on  cogs, 
worm  and  bearings.  Since  the  striking  force  of  any  moving  body 
varies  directly  with  its  mass  but  as  the  square  of  the  speed,  it 
must  be  expected  that  those  separators  that  are  geared  to  be  run 
at  a  high  rate  of  speed  will  require  more  attention  if  not  also 
wear  out  quicker  than  those  that  run  at  a  slower  rate. 

Cleaning  the  Bowl. — Unfortunately  the  weakness  of  human 
nature  has  been  added  to  by  the  advice  of  some  separator  agents 
who,  to  make  sales,  have  instructed  the  purchaser  that  it  was  not 
necessary  to  wash  the  bowl  every  time  it  was  used,  that  to  wash  it 
every  two  or  three  days  was  enough  if  the  thing  be  well  rinsed. 
Such  advice  is  wrong,  as  any  one  will  soon  find  who  endeavors  to 
sell  sweet  cream  from  an  unwashed  separator.  Merely  rinsing 
or  spinning  the  discs  in  water  is  not  enough  to  keep  them  in 
good  condition.  A  few  mechanical  washing  devices  work  very 
well  for  a  hasty  wash,  but  the  particles  of  matter  cling  so  tightly 
to  the  discs,  wings  and  other  inner  parts  that  a  sound  scrub- 
bing with  a  brush  or  coarse  cloth  is  necessary. 

Directions  for  Modifying  Milk  and  Cream.1 — The  simplest 
and  most  accurate  method  of  modifying  or  standardizing  cream 
or  milk  to  any  desired  standard  of  butter  fat  is  that  developed  by 
Pearson.  This  method,  discussed  below,  is  applicable  not  only  in 
market  milk  and  cream  work  but  in  ice  cream  making  also. 

Example  1. — Given  a  40  per  cent  cream  and  a  4  per  cent 
milk,  to  be  mixed  to  produce  a  16  per  cent  cream. n/  The  amount 
to  be  used  can  be  determined  very  readily  by  the  following 
procedure : 

1  This  section  on  the  modifying  of  milk  and  cream  is  taken  largely  from 
the  author's  bulletin.  Principles  and  Practice  of  Ice  Cream  Making.  Vt. 
Sta.  155. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  MODIFYING  MILK  AND  CREAM      337 

(1.)  Subtracting-  the  figure  representing  the  desired  quality 
from  the  known  cream  fat  percentage  to  obtain  the  amount  of 
milk  to  be  used. 

(2.)  Subtracting  the  known  percentage  of  the  milk  from 
the  desired  percentage  of  the  mixture  to  obtain  the  amount  of 
cream  to  be  used.  \y 

Thus,  in  the  above  stated  example,  40  — 16  =  24," 
10  —  4  =  12.  This  can  best  be  illustrated  by  drawing  a  square 
and  placing  the  figures  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram : 


(16  —  4=12) 
(40  —  16  =  24) 


It  will  be  noticed  that  in  this  particular  example  the  pro- 
portions of  cream  to  milk  are  12:24;  that,  in  other  words,  by 
mixing  together  12  pounds  of  40' per  cent  cream  and  24  pounds 
of  4  per  cent  milk  there  will  be  obtained  36  pounds  of  16 
per  cent  cream. 

Example  2. — Given  a  42  per  cent  cream  to  be  reduced  by 
skim  milk  to  a  20  per  cent  cream.     The  square  will  be : 


(20  —  0  =  20) 
(42  —  20  =  22) 


Mixing  in  the  proportion  of  20  cream  and  22  skim  milk,  by 
weight  the  result  is  attained.     Figuring  as  before  for  proof: 
42  X  .20  =  8.40. 
.00  X  .22  =  00. 
8.40  -f  00  =  8.40. 
20  +  22  =  42.     8.40  -i-  42  =  .20. 

22 


338 


CREAM  SEPARATION 


If  one  wishes  to  know,  for  example,  how  much  42  per  cent 
cream  should  be  added  to  10  pounds  of  skim  milk  to  make  a 
20  per  cent  cream,  one  figures  as  before.  22  :  20  : :  10  :  x.  This 
gives  0.09  pounds,  as  may  be  proven  thus: 


.42  X    9.09=    3.82 
00  X  10       =    0.00 

19.09   )    3.820  (    .20  per  cent  of  fat 
3.818 


20 
Example  3. — Given  milks  carrying  •>  Vi*  and  5  per  cent  fat 
to  be  mixed  to  make  4  per  cent  milk : 


(5  —  4  =  1) 


(4  —  3i/o 


i/o  :  1  : :  1  :  2.     Hence  one  can  of  the  lower  and  two  of  the 
higher  grade  will  make  three  cans  of  the  4  per  cent  grade. 
Any  other  figures  may  be  used  as  desired ;  as,  for  example, 

4.6  and  3.3  to  make  a  3.7  per  cent  grade.     4.G  —  3.7  =  0.9 

3.7  —  3.3  =  0.4.      Four  parts  of  the  higher  grade  and  nine 
parts  of  the  lower  are  called  for. 

This  method  of  finding  out  how  much  of  any  two  substances 
will  be  required  to  produce  any  desired  blend  may  be  applied 
to  anything  and  everything  wet  or  dry  just  so  long  as  they 
are  combined  by  weight,  or  have  the  same  weight  per  unit 
of  measure. 

Another  very  convenient  tool  in  this  connection  is  a  rule  by 
means  of  which  one  may  find  directly  how  many  gallons  (or 
pounds)  of  rich  cream  and  skim  milk  will  be  required  to  pro- 
duce any  definite  number  of  gallons  (or  pounds)  of  cream  test- 
ing any  definite  percentage  of  fat.  The  rule  is :  Multiply  the 
amount  of  cream  desired  by  the  test  of  the  cream  desired  and 
divide  this  product  by  the  test  of  the  rich  cream  at  hand.     This 


QUESTIONS 


339 


will  give  the  amount  of  the  rich  cream  required  for  the  mixture. 
The  difference  between  the  amount  of  cream  desired  and  the 
amount  of  rich  cream  required  will  indicate  the  amount  of  skim 
milk  required  to  be  mixed  with  the  rich  cream  to  produce  the 
desired  result. 

Compositions,  Ratios  and  Weights. — The  richer  any  given 
milk  is  in  fat,  the  greater  is  the  proportion  of  fat  in  the  solids. 
This  fact  is  important  to  both  producer  and  consumer. 

The  richer  milk  or  cream  is  the  lighter  it  is  per  gallon.  This 
is  because  fat  is  only  about  87  per  cent  as  heavy  as  the  skim  milk 
in  which  it  is  floating.  The  specific  gravities  and  weights  of  the 
gallon  shown  below  are  based  on  the  temperature  68  degrees.  F. 


Solids 

Total 

Ratio 

Fat 

Specific 

Weight 

Fat 

not  Fat 

Solids 

Fat  to 

Percentage 

Gravity 

per 

per  cent 

per  cent 

per  cent 

Non-fat 

Total  Solids 

at  68°  F. 

Gallon 

Water 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

1.000 

8.3216 

Milk 

0.02 

8.91 

0.93 

1.037 

8.6295 

" 

3.00 

8.64 

11.64 

1:2.88 

25.77 

1.034 

8.6045 

" 

3.50 

8.60 

12.10 

1 : 2.45 

28.92 

1.033 

8.5962 

n 

4.00 

8.55 

12.55 

1:2.14 

31.87 

1.032 

8.5879 

>> 

4.50 

8.52 

13.01 

1:1.89 

34.58 

1.032 

8.5838 

" 

5.00 

8.48 

13.46 

1:1.70 

37.14 

1.031 

8.5796 

" 

5.50 

8.42 

13.92 

1:1.53 

39.51 

1.031 

8.5754 

" 

6.00 

8.38 

14.38 

1:1.39 

41.72 

1.030 

8.5712 

Cream 

18.00 

7.31 

25.31 

1:0.41 

71.11 

1.015 

8.4764 

" 

20.00 

7.13 

27.13 

1:0.36 

73.71 

1.013 

8.4298 

" 

25.00 

6.68 

31.68 

1 : 0.27 

78.91 

1.008 

8.3882 

" 

30.00 

6.24 

36.24 

1:0.21 

82.78 

1.004 

8.3549 

" 

35.00 

5.79 

40.79 

1:0.16 

85.81 

1.000 

8.3179 

" 

40.00 

5.35 

45.35 

1:0.13 

88.20 

0.995 

8.2800 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  does  a  separator  separate? 

2.  How  much  fat  is  lost  in  skim  milk  with  gravity  creaming?    With  mechan- 

ical creaming? 

3.  What  is  the  normal  way  of  changing  the  fat  content  of  cream? 

4.  Explain  reasons  for  fat  variation  in  separator  cream? 

5.  How  must  a  separator  he  set  if  it  is  to  do  good  work? 

6.  Explain  on   the  board  how  to  modify  milk  or  cream  to  any  given  fat 

percentage  ? 

7.  What  is  the  weight  of  a  gallon  of  water,  skim  milk,  milk,  and  35  per 

cent  cream? 


CHAPTER  XXX 
CARE  AND  RIPENING  OF  CREAM  ON  THE  FARM 

The  price  of  butter  depends  more  largely  upon  its  flavor 
than  upon  all  other  qualities  put  together.  The  flavor  of  butter 
is  due  almost  wholly  to  the  kind  and  amount  of  bacterial  growth 
which  takes  place  in  the  cream  before  the  butter  is  made,  often 
before  the  cream  ever  reaches  the  place  of  manufacture. 

On  March  1st,  1916,  the  prices  of  creamery  butter  on  the 
JNTew  York  market  were  as  follows :  Special  high  score,  37  to  37!/2 
cents;  extras,  92  per  cent  score,  36  to  36^  cents;  firsts,  90  to  92 
per  cent  score,  35  to  36  cents;  seconds,  87  to  90  per  cent  score, 
33!/2  cents;  ladles,  23  cents.  The  difference  in  price  between 
the  33i/2-cent  and  the  371/o-cent  butter  was  due  entirely  to 
flavor  or  tasty  quality.  The  price  is  seldom  influenced  mate- 
rially by  the  amount  of  salt  or  moisture  or  fat  in  the  butter  and 
usually  not  materially  influenced  by  workmanship.  The  differ- 
ence, 4  cents,  is  nearly  12  per  cent  of  the  price  quoted  for  seconds 
or,  in  other  words,  a  more  pleasing  flavor  would  have  enabled  the 
manufacturers  of  that  butter  to  have  sold  it  for  12  per  cent 
more  than  was  obtained.  When  butter  is  more  plentiful,  as  in 
spring  and  early  summer,  the  difference  in  price  is  even  greater. 
In  the  case  of  the  23-cent  butter,  there  are  defects  other  than 
mere  flavor  to  cause  the  discouragingly  low  price,  though  the  fat 
in  it  cost  the  farmer  the  same  to  produce  as  that  which  sold  for 
almost  twice  as  much. 

The  value  of  cleanliness  is  nowhere  more  manifest  than  in 
the  dairy.  The  price  depends  on  flavor,  flavor  depends  on  bac- 
teria, and  bacteria  depend  on  the  dirtiness  of  the  cow's  teats,  the 
milker's  hands,  pail,  strainer  cloths,  and  separator.  If  all  these 
be  clean  the  cream  is  well  started  on  the  road  toward  a  choice 
butter  and  high  price. 

A  cool  temperature  following  quickly  after  separating  is  ex- 
ceedingly important  to  a  cream  and  butter  of  good  keeping 
quality.  The  rate  of  growth  of  bacteria  at  the  temperature  of  50 
340 


CREAM  GRADING  341 

degrees  compared  with.  70  degrees  is  well  shown  in  figure  115.  It 
is  seen  that  as  a  rule  the  degeneration  of  cream  is  many  times 
more  rapid  at  the  temperature  of  70  than  at  50  degrees.  Only 
about  twenty  minutes  under  good  conditions  is  required  for  one 
germ  to  mature  and  split  into  two  germs.  To  prevent  rapid 
growth  the  cream  should  be  cooled  immediately  after  separating 
to  a  temperature  of  50  degrees  or  below.  Clean  cream  cooled  at 
once  in  ice  water  will  keep  sweet  a  week  or  ten  days  very  readily. 
Milk  has  been  kept  four  weeks  and  cream  five  weeks  without  the 
aid  of  anything  except  coldness.  Under  plain  farm  conditions 
the  cream  may,  by  the  use  of  cold  well  water,  be  kept  three  to  four 
days  if  it  were  produced  in  a  cleanly  manner. 

In  practically  all  the  northern  states  the  deep  well  water  has 
a  temperature  of  45  to  52  degrees  and  serves  very  well  in  cooling 
cream  if  arrangements  be  provided  as  in  figures  113  and  114, 
in  which  all  the  water  pumped  by  windmill  or  gas  engine  for  the 
stock  flows  first  around  the  cream  cans  and  thence  to  the  cattle 
and  horses.  Where  an  arrangement  of  this  sort  is  not  prac- 
ticable, ice  should  by  all  means  be  provided.  Where  the  cream 
only  is  cooled,  one  ton  of  ice  will  suffice  for  two  cows  for  the  sea- 
son in  the  northern  states.  If  the  ice  costs  $2  per  ton  or  $1  per 
cow  a  season,  the  profit  on  the  investment  will  amount  to  at  least 
$4  per  cow  after  paying  for  the  ice,  and  often  to  twice  this 
amount,  through  the  increased  value  of  the  cream. 

Frequency  of  delivery  has  much  to  do  with  quality.  While 
it  is  a  fact  that  cream  may  be  produced  so  clean  and  kept  so  cold 
as  to  remain  sweet  two  weeks  or  more,  it  is  also  true  that  under 
most  American  conditions,  even  in  the  recognized  dairy  sec- 
tions, plans  should  be  made  for  the  delivery  of  the  cream  to  the 
creamery  or  its  making  up  into  butter  at  least  three  times  a 
week  in  summer  and  twice  in  winter. 

Cream  grading  and  payment  for  and  on  quality  has  long 
been  advocated.  It  has  been  recognized  for  years  that  clean 
sound  cream  is  worth  more  than  that  which  has  undergone 
partial  breaking  down  of  one  or  more  of  its  constituents.  But 
for  various  reasons,  chiefly  business  rivalry,  grading  has  not  yet 
become  general.    It  is  being  done,  however,  in  various  localities, 


342       CARE  AND  RIPENING  OF  CREAM  ON  THE  FARM 

a  difference  of  three  to  four  cents  being  made  between  the  first 
and  the  second  class  cream,  and  two  to  three  cents  between 
second  and  third  classes.  It  is  both  illogical  and  unfair  to  pay  as 
much  for  the  fat  in  poor  cream  as  for  that  in  good. 


Fig.  113. — Milk  cooling  tank,  cover  off  to  show  arrangement  of  cans.  All  water 
pumped  for  the  stock  passes  first  through  this  tank.  (Courtesy  Minnesota  Tank  and  Silo 
Co.,   Minneapolis,   Minn.) 

Cream  Ripening. — What  is  it?  By  cream  ripening  is 
meant  the  process  of  allowing  or  forcing  the  cream  to  become 
sour  by  means  of  a  certain  kind  of  bacteria  which,  while  gen- 
erating acid,  also  produces  a  thick  glossy  condition  and  an 
agreeable  flavor. 


HOW  IS  IT  DONE? 


343 


Why  is  it  done?  For  the  purpose  of  improving  the  flavor, 
increasing  the  yield  of  butter  through  a  reduced  loss  of  fat  in 
the  buttermilk  and  to  shorten  the  time  required  to  do  the 
churning.  The  latter  two  benefits  are  brought  about  by  the  fact 
that  the  acid  coagulates  the  casein  and  renders  it  brittle. 


Fig.  114. — Milk  cooling  tank,  cover  in  place.      (Courtesy  of  Minnesota  Tank  and  Silo  Co., 
Minneapolis,  Minn.) 

How  is  it  done?  There  are  two  more  or  less  distinct  meth- 
ods: (1)  the  farm  dairy  method ;  (2)  the  creamery  method. 

1.  In  what  may  be  called  the  farm  dairy  method  the  process 
is  direct  and  simple.    The  cream  is  held  after  separating  for  one 


344       CARE  AND  RIPENING  OF  CREAM  ON  THE  FARM 

to  three  days  in  cans  in  cold  water,  and  then  about  twelve  to 
eighteen  hours  before  the  butter  is  to  be  made,  all  the  cream  to 
be  churned  is  poured,  if  possible,  into  one  vat  or  can,  thoroughly 
mixed,  warmed  to  about  70  degrees  in  summer  or  75  degrees  in 
winter,  and  left  to  sour.  It  should  be  stirred  frequently  to  pre- 
vent curd  clots  from  forming  in  the  bottom  of  the  can  or  vat. 
When  the  cream  has  become  somewhat  thick  and  glossy  and 
pours  like  thick  milk  gravy  it  is  about  ripe  enough  and  should 
be  cooled  to  about  53  degrees  to  prevent  further  rapid  growth  of 
the  lactic  acid  bacteria,  also  to  temper  the  fat  that  firm  butter 
may  be  made.  After  the  cream  has  stood  cool  for  four  or  more 
hours  it  will  be  ready  for  churning  (Fig.  115). 

If  the  cream  is  held  for  a  longer  period  than  about  three 
days  there  is  danger  of  a  bitter  flavor  and  an  old  cream  taste 
developing.  The  bitter  germ  is  favored  by  a  temperature 
between  40  and  50  degrees,  but  grows  slowly.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  cream  be  warmed  to  a  temperature  of  85  or  90 
degrees  it  is  liable  to  develop  a  gassy,  foul-flavored  condition.  The 
germ  that  produces  gas  in  milk  and  cream  is  usually  one  of  the 
colon  group,  which  lives  naturally  in  the  alimentary  canal  of 
cows  and  other  warm-blooded  animals.  The  warmer  tempera- 
ture in  cream  therefore  naturally  favors  the  growth  of  such 
bacteria. 

Can  cream  be  ripened  too  much?  Indeed,  it  can.  If  the 
souring  temperature,  about  70  degrees,  be  maintained  for  too 
long  a  time  the  acid  will  literally  kill  off  the  very  kind  of  bac- 
teria that  produced  it  and  the  cream  will  take  on  an  old  and  a 
harsh  taste.  Butter  made  from  such  over-ripe  cream  will  not 
keep  as  well  as  that  made  from  cream  containing  less  acid. 

Cream  is  in  best  condition  to  churn  well  and  still  produce  a 
good  keeping  butter  when  it  contains  about  0.45  to  0.50  per  cent 
acid,  if  the  cream  test  35  per  cent  fat;  or  0.55  to  0.60  per  cent 
acid  if  the  cream  contains  only  about  25  per  cent  fat. 

When  the  cream  has  stood  warm  until  sufficiently  sour  as 
shown  by  one  of  the  chemical  tests,  and  the  senses,  it  should 
then  be  cooled  to  a  temperature  of  about  52  or  53  degrees  or  even 
lower  in  summer,  or  56  degrees  in  winter,  and  held  at  that  tern- 


QUESTIONS  345 

perature  for  at  least  four  hours  iu  order  that  the  butter  fat  may 
have  time  to  solidify,  or  temper. 

When  once  thoroughly  soured  and  cooled,  cream  may  be  held 
for  a  day  or  two  if  necessary  without  great  injury.  The  pres- 
ence of  the  lactic  acid  prevents  most  other  forms  of  bacteria  from 
growing,  whereas  if  it  were  endeavored  to  keep  the  cream  sweet 
by  low  temperature  for  four  or  five  days  it  is  probable  that  a 
bitter,  unpleasant-flavored  bacterial  growth  would  have  occurred. 


Fig.   115. —Showing  the  effect  of  temperature  on  rate  of  growth  of  bacteria. 
a  at  50°  F.,  b  at  70°  F. 

.  2.  The  creamery  system  consists  first  in  pasteurizing  the 
cream  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  all,  or  as  many  as  possible, 
of  the  bacteria  that  were  brought  in  by  the  patrons  and  then 
souring  or  ripening  it  by  means  of  a  starter  prepared  from  a 
pure  culture  grown  for  the  purpose.  A  starter  is  essentially 
only  a  quantity  of  clean-flavored  sour  milk  used  to  hasten  and 
to  control  the  growth  of  bacteria  in  the  cream.  This  process  is 
too  long  and  complicated  for  farm  dairy  use. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  relation  is  there  between  care  of  cream  on  the  farm  and  price 

received  for  the  finished  butter?    Explain. 

2.  How  does  cold  temperature  of  cream  preserve  its  quality? 

3.  How  long  after  separating  is  it  safe  to  try  to  keep  cream  before  it  is 

made  into  butter? 

4.  What  difference  in  price  is  it  fair  to  make  between  sweet,  clean  cream  and 

that  which  is  sour  and  off  flavor? 

5.  What  is  meant  by  cream  ripening? 

6.  Why  is  cream  ripened? 

7.  How  is  cream  ripened? 

8.  May  cream  be  ripened  too  much? 

9.  What  is  meant  by  tempering  cream  ? 

10.  Briefly,  what  is  the  creamery  system  of  cream  ripening? 


J? 


CHAPTER  XXXI 
DAIRY  BUTTER  MAKING  j 

The  large  place  so  long  held  by  home-made  butter  is  now 
largely  filled  by  that  made  in  a  factory,  called  creamery  butter, 
and  the  change  has  come  about  almost  wholly  during  the  past 
twenty-five  years.  Whereas  formerly  every  rural  home  was 
supposed  to  make  butter  sufficient  for  its  needs,  if  not  for  sale 
as  well,  it  is  now  not  at  all  infrequent  to  find  that  on  farms  where 
ten  to  twenty  cows  are  kept  no  butter  whatever  is  regularly  made, 
creamery  butter  being  purchased  for  consumption  on  the  farm. 
This  has  been  in  most  cases  beneficial  in  relieving  the  housewife 
in  many  instances  of  a  portion  of  her  burden,  as  well  as  render- 
ing it  possible  to  secure  a  greater  cash  return  from  the  herd 
through  the  production  of  a  larger  quantity  of  more  uniformly 
high  class  butter,  and  through  it  the  finding  of  better  market. 

It  is  not  an  unmixed  good,  however;,  since  some  buy  who 
should  make.  Once  the  art  of  making  cheese,  soap,  syrup  and 
the  curing  of  meats  was  well  known  and  practiced  by  the  people 
in  general.  jSTow  these  are  manufactured  elsewhere  and  the  pro- 
ducer must  buy  when  he  should  have  preserved  his  own.  It  is  to 
be  hoped  that  butter  making  does  not  go  the  same  road. 

The  Place  for  Farm-made  Butter. — There  are  places  in  the 
northern  creamery  sections  of  the  country  as  well  as  occasional 
instances  in  creamery  territory  where  the  production  of  a  high 
class  dairy  butter  for  market  is  being  found  highly  profitable. 

The  principle  underlying  the  process  of  butter  making  is 
identical  whether  the  work  be  done  on  the  farm  or  in  the  factory, 
on  a  small  scale  or  a  large.  The  methods  and  machines  employed 
to  accomplish  the  work  differ  in  size  but  not  in  principle. 

Collecting  the  Cream. — On  farms  it  will  be  found  almost 
universally  desirable  to  collect  the  cream  as  produced  from  day 
to  day  and  hold  it  in  well  tinned  cans.  The  ordinary  four- 
gallon  "  shot  gun  "  can,  eight  inches  in  diameter  and  twenty 
inches  high,  is  excellent.  If  the  cans  are  rusty  or  have  exposed 
346 


THE  CMUHN  347 

iron  patches  the  butter  is  very  liable  indeed  to  have  a  strong 
metallic  or  even  a  fishy  flavor.  The  cream  should  be  cooled 
promptly  after  separation  to  a  temperature  between  50  and  45 
degrees  F.  If  warm  cream  is  mixed  with  old  cream  the 
whole  mass  will  start  souring  promptly.  Therefore,  fresh  lots 
should  be  kept  separate  until  cold,  when  they  may  be  mixed  with 
that  previously  procured.  If  the  cream  reaches  a  temperature 
of  55  degrees  the  souring  process  proceeds  quite  rapidly.  There 
is  no  particular  advantage  in  cooling  at  any  time  below  40  de- 
grees, however,  and  45  degrees  will  do  very  well  indeed. 

For  the  production  of  best  butter,  cream  should  be  churned 
at  least  twice  a  week  in  winter  and  three  times  in  summer.  In 
hot  climates  daily  churnings  are  to  be  preferred. 

Churning. — The  churning  process  consists  essentially  in  a 
series  of  concussions  which  serve  to  break  the  curd  and  to  cause 
the  minute  globules  of  butter  fat  to  come  into  contact  with  one 
another  and  cause  them  to  stick  together,  growing  in  size  with 
the  addition  of  others  until  granules  are  formed  sufficiently 
large  to  be  easily  removed.  The  process  is  essentially  the  same 
whether  done  by  stirring  cream  in  a  bowl,  pounding  a  skin  bag 
filled  with  milk,  plunging  a  vertical  dasher  or  revolving  a  barrel 
churn  permitting  the  cream  to  fall. 

The  churn  used  will  vary  in  size  and  kind  with  the  amount 
of  work  to  be  done,  but  some  form  of  barrel  is  preferable  to  any 
in  which  paddles  only  revolve  or  in  which  the  cream  slops  from 
one  end  of  the  churn  to  the  other,  the  receptacle  not  revolving. 

All  of  the  so-called  "  lightning  "  chums,  and  most  of  those 
made  of  metal  should  be  looked  upon  as  thoroughly  impracti- 
cable. Small  churns  made  of  earthenware  may  be  perfectly 
cleansed,  and  in  this  respect  are  desirable.  Wooden  churns,  how- 
ever, are  still  recognized  as  standard.  While  more  difficult  to 
clean  and  keep  sweet,  such  may  be  accomplished  with  care. 
Wood  has  the  further  advantage  of  being  a  good  non-conductor 
of  heat  and  therefore  aids  in  holding  the  temperature  of  the 
cream  near  the  desired  point,  even  though  the  temperature  of 
the  atmosphere  of  the  room  is  higher  or  lower  than  the  cream 
within.  Another  valuable  feature  of  wood  is  that  when  well 
ecalded  and  soaked,  butter  fat  will  not  stick  to  it.     Butter  of 


348  DAIRY  BUTTER  MAKING 

better  grain  and  texture  can  be  made  in  wooden  churns  than  in 
metal  churns  because  it  is  impossible  to  so  prepare  metal  that 
the  fat  will  not  adhere  considerably  even  under  ideal  tempera- 
ture conditions,  and  badly  if  the  churning  is  being  done  at  a 
temperature  which  is  but  slightly  too  high. 

To  prepare  the  wooden  churn  for  use,  liberal  quantities  of 
scalding  hot  water  should  be  used,  primarily,  for  the  purpose  of 
soaking  the  wood,  or  in  other  words,  driving  the  air  out  of  it. 
When  the  tissue  of  the  wood  has  become  filled  with  hot  water 
the  whole  should  be  well  cooled  with  cold  water  in  order  that 
the  warmth  contained  in  the  walls  of  the  churn  shall  not  raise 
the  temperature  of  the  cream.  The  same  principles  pertain 
to  the  preparation  of  all  woodenware,  such  as  ladles  and  worker. 

Straining  the  cream  into  the  churn  is  a  wise  precaution  for 
removal  of  particles  of  curd  as  well  as  for  removal  of  sawdust  or 
any  other  foreign  matter  which  may  have  fallen  into  the  cream. 

No  barrel  churn  should  be  filled  more  than  one-third  full 
if  quick  and  exhaustive  churning  is  to  be  done.  There  must  be 
room  left  for  the  cream  to  fall. 

Coloring  the  butter  is  accomplished  by  adding  the  liquid 
color  to  the  cream  immediately  before  starting  to  churn.  The 
quantity  used  will  vary  with  the  breed  of  cattle,  the  feed  that 
they  are  consuming,  and  the  market  to  which  the  butter  is  to 
be  shipped.  With  Guernsey  and  Jersey  cows  on  pasture  no 
color  will  be  needed,  since  their  product  is  naturally  yellow.  The 
shade  of  natural  butter  varies  all  the  way  from  a  bright  orange, 
produced  by  Guernseys  on  blue  grass  pasture,  to  an  almost  pure 
white,  produced  by  Holsteins,  Ayrshires  and  Shorthorns  on  win- 
ter feed.  In  winter,  generally  speaking,  one  cubic  centimeter 
of  color  for  every  pound  of  butter  fat  in  the  cream,  or  one  tea- 
spoonful  for  every  gallon  of  cream  will  be  found  abundant.  Some 
colors  are  stronger  than  others  and  care  must  be  exercised  to  not 
use  too  much.     The  market  requirements  should  also  be  studied. 

The  color  used  is  the  outer  portion  of  the  seed  of  the  annatto 
plant  which  grows  in  the  South  Sea  Islands  and  South  America. 
The  color  is  incorporated  mechanically  in  cottonseed  oil  as  a 
carrier.  When  used,  the  added  color  accompanies  the  oil  and 
is  made  to  surround  the  many  globules  of  fat.     Butter  color 


WHEN  TO  STOP  CHURNING  349 

is  used  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  a  reasonable  degree  of 
uniformity  in  color  throughout  the  entire  year  or,  in  other  words, 
to  make  butter  look  like  butter,  the  year  round,  not  like  butter 
in  summer  and  lard  in  winter. 

Gas  (carbon  dioxide)  develops  in  cream  with  the  growth 
of  the  bacteria,  which  is  released  with  a  few  revolutions  of  the 
churn.  In  all  tightly  closed  barrel  churns  the  gas  should  be 
given  opportunity  to  escape  once,  and  usually  twice. 

The  speed  of  churn  should  be  as  rapid  as  possible  and  still 
secure  the  maximum  of  concussion  or  pounding  of  the  cream 
within.  This  naturally  will  vary  with  the  thinness  of  the 
cream  and  the  amount  in  the  churn. 

At  this  point  in  the  process  the  churning  should  be  con- 
tinued evenly  until  the  globules  of  fat  have  assembled  into 
granules  and  the  granules  grown  to  be  sufficiently  large  for 
easy  and  thorough  removal. 

When  to  Stop  Churning. — If  the  churning  process  is  con- 
tinued too  long  the  butter  will  gather  into  larger  and  yet 
larger  lumps  until  finally  the  entire  mass  is  in  one  or  two 
great  chunks  or  balls.  Such  butter  is  over-churned  and  has 
incorporated  throughout  its  entire  mass  a  large  quantity  of  but- 
termilk. The  butter  maker  at  this  point  is  faced  with  the 
option  of  either  permitting  the  buttermilk  to  remain  in  the 
butter  mass  and  there  sour  and  produce  a  poor  butter,  or  of 
squeezing  and  working  the  buttermilk  out,  which  process 
is  very  liable  to  produce  a  greasy  butter  with  poor  grain  and 
weak  body.  To  obviate  both  these  difficulties  the  churning 
process  should  be  stopped  when  the  granules  of  butter  have 
reached  the  size  of  a  kernel  of  wheat  or  cracked  com.  If  the 
cream  has  been  ripened  sufficiently  to  render  the  casein  brittle 
and  if  the  temperature  of  the  cream  and  the  fat  within  it  has 
been  such  that  the  particles  of  fat  can  stick  together  when  they 
do  touch,  the  process  of  churning  need  not  have  consumed 
more  than  twenty  minutes.  To  churn  with  a  hand  churn  more 
than  twenty  to  twenty-five  minutes  is  a  waste  of  labor.  Where 
a  larger  churn  driven  by  power  is  used  it  is  preferable  to 
cool  the  cream  to  such  a  temperature  that  the  butter  will  not 
come  in  less  than  about  thirty  minutes  nor  more  than  forty-five. 


350  DAIRY  BUTTER  MAKING 

Drawing  off  the  buttermilk  is  best  done  by  allowing  the 
churn  to  stand  quietly  a  few  minutes  until  the  granules  of  butter 
have  risen  to  the  top,  when  the  buttermilk  below  may  be  drawn 
off  through  a  sieve  quickly  and  with  slight  loss  of  butter.  The 
temperature  of  the  butter  at  this  time  should  be  taken. 

Washing  the  butter  is  done  for  the  purpose  of  removing 
practically  all  of  the  buttermilk  remaining  in  the  mass.  The 
water,  naturally,  should  be  clean  and  of  a  temperature  ranging 
from  the  same  to  two  degrees  lower  than  the  butter  at  the  time 
the  buttermilk  was  drawn.  In  farm  practice  the  butter  should 
be  washed  twice,  using  each  time  fully  as  much  water  as  there 
was  cream  at  the  start.  The  churn  should  be  revolved  two  or 
three  times  with  each  wash  water  to  insure  a  more  thorough 
removal  of  the  buttermilk.  The  last  wash  water  should  be  kept 
on  the  butter  until  the  salt  is  ready  to  be  applied  when  the  tem- 
perature of  the  work  room  is  too  warm,  65  degrees  or  above. 

Salt  is  used  in  butter  for  two  purposes :  To  give  flavor  and 
to  preserve  the  butter.  A  few  people,  however,  prefer  the  flavor 
of  unsalted,  or  so-called  "  sweet  butter."  They  should  expect, 
however,  that  such  will  become  rancid  or  moldy  in  a  very- 
much  shorter  time  than  would  be  the  case  had  salt  been  mixed 
with  the  same  butter.  The  presence  of  salt  to  the  amount  of 
2!/2  per  cent  of  the  total  butter  is  protection  also  against  mold- 
ing. Neither  green  mold  nor  the  ordinary  black  mold  can  grow 
in  the  presence  of  such  a  quantity  of  salt.  To  make  butter  con- 
tain 2!/2  per  cent  of  salt  in  the  finished  article  it  is  necessary  to 
add  it  in  amount  from  7  to  10  per  cent,  varying  with  the  fine- 
ness of  the  salt,  the  amount  of  water  left  in  the  granules  of  but- 
ter in  the  churn,  and  the  amount  of  butter  made  in  proportion 
to  the  size  of  the  churn.  A  small  batch  requires  more  in  pro- 
portion. The  more  water  remaining  in  the  butter  the  greater 
will  be  the  amount  of  salt  washed  away.  Fine  salt,  likewise, 
dissolves  more  quickly  and  wastes  more  readily  than  coarse  salt. 
Coarse  salt  has  the  disadvantage,  however,  of  being  slow  in  dis- 
solving, requiring  from  fifteen  minutes  to  an  hour  to  go  into 
solution.  So  long  a  time  as  this,  however,  will  often  cause  the 
butter  in  the  churn  to  become  warm  and  altogether  too  soft  for 
good  working,  or  in  winter  to  become  too  hard.     It  is  desirable 


SALT  351 

to  work  sooner,  but  if  the  working  process  be  continued  while  the 
coarse  grains  of  salt  are  undissolved  they  will  grind  and  pierce 
the  granules  and  globules  of  butter  fat  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
make  the  whole  mass  salvy  and  oily  in  texture  and  flavor.  It  is 
highly  desirable  that  salt  for  butter  making  be  fine  in  texture. 

Salt  as  ordinarily  offered  on  the  market  varies  considerably 
in  its  purity.  Some  which  is  designed  for  use  in  butter  is  in 
reality  unfit  because  containing  chemical  impurities  such  as 
plaster  of  Paris,  which  renders  the  salt  difficult  and  slow  of  solu- 
tion. These  impurities  are  liable  indeed  to  cause  the  salt  to 
remain  hard  and  granular,  like  so  much  sand.  So  far  as  known 
they  have  no  injurious  effect  upon  cattle,  but  certainly  render 
butter  less  valuable.  Aside  from  these  chemical  impurities 
some  salt  has  been  exposed  to  dust,  so  when  a  teaspoonful  is  dis- 
solved in  a  cup  of  water  it  leaves  a  gray  film  of  dust  on  the  sur- 
face. Such  salt  should  not  be  used.  Again,  salt  will  absorb  odors 
if  it  has  been  stored  where  such  is  possible.  The  unpleasant  odor 
of  a  close  warehouse,  general  store,  or  kitchen  is  not  infrequently 
discernible  in  salt  and  in  butter  when  such  salt  is  used. 

To  distribute  the  salt  evenly  throughout  the  butter  with  the 
least  possible  amount  of  pressing  or  digging  of  the  butter,  the  salt 
should  be  added  in  the  churn.  This  is  best  done  by  drawing  the 
second  butter  wash  water  thoroughly.  The  churn  should  then 
be  rocked  backwards  sufficiently  to  throw  the  granular  mass  of 
butter  against  the  wall  of  the  churn  opposite  the  drain  hole.  With 
a  small  ladle  a  thin  layer  of  butter  is  then  sprinkled  upon  the 
floor  of  the  churn.  Upon  this  salt  is  sprinkled.  A  second  layer 
of  butter  is  then  drawn  lightly  upon  the  first.  Thus,  layer  upon 
layer,  the  salt  and  butter  are  mixed.  If  the  temperature  of  the 
room  will  permit,  the  butter  should,  at  this  point,  be  allowed  to 
stand  for  at  least  five  minutes  to  permit  the  salt  to  dissolve  and 
the  excess  water  to  drain  away,  at  the  end  of  which  time 
the  butter  should  be  pressed  together  firmly  enough  to  permit 
it  to  be  worked.  If  a  separate  worker  is  used  it  should  be  thor- 
oughly scalded  and  cooled.  After  a  slight  amount  of  working 
to  more  thoroughly  press  together  the  many  granules  of  butter 
the  mass  should  again  be  permitted  to  stand  several  minutes  to 
give  the  salt  time  to  completely  dissolve. 


352  DAIRY  BUTTER  MAKING 

Working  is  done  for  the  purpose  ( 1 )  of  distributing  the  salt 
thoroughly  and  evenly  throughout  the  whole  mass  of  butter,  (2) 
of  pressing  out  the  superfluous  water  and  (3)  of  forming  the 
granules  of  butter  into  a  solid  mass.  The  worker  which  will 
do  this  with  the  least  amount  of  grinding  or  smearing  and 
which  is  also  inexpensive  and  easily  cleaned  is  the  best  worker. 
That  known  as  the  lever  butter  worker,  made  in  various  sizes, 
is  unquestionably  the  most  satisfactory  all-around  instrument 
where  a  small  quantity  of  butter  is  to  be  made. 

Here  the  butter  should  be  spread  evenly  and  worked  by 
means  of  the  five-sided  lever.  The  working  consists  in  a  fold- 
ing and  pressing  process.  The  loose  crumbs  of  butter  must 
be  gathered  in  from  time  to  time  and  the  near  and  far,  not  right 
and  left,  edges  of  the  flat  layer  of  butter  turned  inward.  This 
folding  in  and  pressing  out  process  is  to  be  continued  until  the 
salt  is  dissolved  and  evenly  distributed  and  the  butter  has 
assumed  a  compact  mellow,  waxy  consistency,  when  working 
should  cease.     Too  much  working  causes  oily  texture  and  flavor. 

Where  butter  is  to  be  made  from  a  herd  of  twenty  or  more 
cows  one  of  the  small-sized  combined  churn-and-worker  (Figs. 
116  and  117)  is  to  be  recommended.  They  are  now  made  in 
sizes  sufficiently  small  to  churn  and  work  25  to  50  pounds  of 
butter  very  satisfactorily.  The  principle  involved  in  the  roller 
within  must  conform  with  those  indicated  as  necessary  for  the 
outside  worker,  namely,  that  the  butter  shall  be  folded  and 
pressed  rather  than  ground  and  sliced.  Care  should  be  taken 
in  selecting  a  combined  churn,  as  some  are  superior  to  others. 

Packing. — Earthen  jars  are  still  recognized  as  the  most  satis- 
factory receptacle  for  butter  so  far  as  the  keeping  qualities  of 
the  butter  are  concerned.  Butter  made  from  mildly  ripened 
cream  in  September  and  October,  carefully  washed,  moderately 
salted  and  solidly  packed  in  clean  earthen  jars,  covered  with  a 
quarter  inch  of  salt  paste,  and  placed  in  an  ordinary  fann  cellar 
will  keep  so  well  as  to  be  very  usable  throughout  the  entire 
winter.  It  would  be  desirable,  however,  under  such  circum- 
stances to  freeze  the  jars  of  butter  at  the  beginning  of  the  winter 
and  to  thaw  out  one  at  a  time  when  needed  for  use.  Jars  have 
the  disadvantage,  however,  of  being  somewhat  expensive  unless 


WORKING 


353 


Fia.  116. — Cream  separator  churn  and  butter  worker  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  small  dairy. 


Fio.   117. — A  cylindrical  churn  and  butter  worker  combined. 


354  DAIRY  BUTTER  MAKING 

they  can  be  returned,  and  of  being  heavy  and  easily  broken. 
Butter  cut  from  jars  also  is  irregular  and  often  ragged  in  ap- 
pearance. For  these  various  reasons  the  pound  print  has  come 
into  favor  in  all  sections  of  the  country. 

Print  tools  which  will  form  from  one  to  a  dozen  pound 
cakes  at  one  time  are  on  the  market  (Fig.  118).  The  single 
print,  however,  is  not  desirable  for  regular  use  because  it  is  slow 
and  because  the  butter  packed  into  it  is  too  liable  to  become 
smeared  and  greasy  from  much  handling.  It  is  convenient 
to  have  one  ready,  however,  in  order  that  small  special  orders 
may  be  more  neatly  filled.  The  print  shown  in  figure  118,  which 
will  make  eight  to  twelve  pound-prints  at  one  filling,  is  thor- 
oughly practical  where  small  amounts  are  made.     The  form 


i 


View  from  above  showing  cutting  wires. 
Fig.  118. — A  multiple  butter  printer  which  cuts  the  prints  apart  with  wire. 

known  as  the  Friday  is  very  convenient,  especially  where  the 
butter  is  liable  to  be  soft  when  made  and  requires  hardening  in 
the  refrigerator  before  being  cut  into  pound  bricks  and  wrapped. 

The  paper  used  for  wrapping  butter  should  not  be  coated  with 
paraffin,  but  should  be  parchment  paper.  The  carton  should, 
however,  be  thoroughly  well  paraffined  inside  to  prevent  evapora- 
tion of  moisture,  and  absorption  of  odors  by  the  butter. 

General  Caution. — The  fat  which  is  later  to  be  made  into 
butter  exists  in  the  milk  and  cream  in  the  form  of  very  minute 
round  balls,  varying  in  size,  but  averaging  about^f  o>ooo  °f  an  incn 
in  diameter.  The  reason  for  churning  is  to  stick  these  little 
globules  together  into  larger  masses  called  granules.  The  rea- 
son for  working  is  to  form  these  granules  into  a  single  mass. 
The  object  especially  to  be  held  in  mind  throughout  the  entire 
process  is  to  collect  and  assemble  these  small  particles  without  in 


MARKETING  355 

any  way  bruising  or  disrupting  the  small  particle  itself.  If  one 
globule  is  broken  or  pierced  and  made  to  flow  into  another,  the 
butter  becomes  to  that  extent  salvy  and  greasy.  To  overwork 
the  butter  is  to  give  it  somewhat  the  condition  which  it  would 
have  if  it  had  been  melted.  It  is  not  incorrect  in  this  connection 
to  think  of  the  butter  fat  globule  as  a  single  grape.  Many,  when 
gathered  in  clusters,  form  a  unit  bunch  of  grapes,  yet  each 
individual  on  the  bunch  should  be  perfect.  The  bunch,  or,  in  this 
simile,  the  granule  of  butter,  may  then  be  assembled  into  larger 
masses,  the  grapes  into  baskets,  the  butter  into  jars.  Yet,  just  as 
it  is  desirable  that  every  bunch  of  grapes  and  every  grape  on 
each  bunch  be  perfect,  so  is  it  desirable  that  the  fine  units,  the 
granules  and  the  globules  of  butter  fat  remain  perfect. 

Marketing — The  old  way  of  bringing  the  farm  butter  to 
the  country  grocery  and  there  trading  it  for  goods  is  about  the 
most  unprofitable,  uninspiring  method  of  marketing  known. 
Where  a  passably  good  dairy  butter  is  made  regularly,  custom- 
ers can  usually  be  found  who  will  pay  well  for  it.  The  butter 
maker  is  also  stimulated  to  do  a  little  better  work  when  the  con- 
sumers of  the  butter  are  known.  There  is  a  wider  field  open, 
however,  to  those  prepared  to  produce  a  high  class  dairy  butter, 
who  also  have  had  training  in  selling.  Many  wealthy  people  in 
cities  gladly  pay  from  40  to  60  cents  a  pound  for  choice  dairy 
butter.  The  chief  difficulty  of  utilizing  this  market  is  that  of 
transportation.  To  express  a  small  quantity  in  an  ice  box  is 
expensive,  while  to  send  by  parcels  post  is  unsatisfactory,  be- 
cause the  butter  will  melt  in  transit  and  deteriorate  in  quality 
very  rapidly,  so  that  when  received  and  cooled  it  will  not  be  the 
choice  butter  that  it  was  when  started. 

The  selling  of  butter  to  neighboring  farmers  is  coming  to  be 
quite  an  industry  in  regions  where  whole  milk  is  shipped  to 
cities,  and  also  to  some  extent  in  communities  where  cream  is 
regularly  sent  to  the  creamery  and  where  the  housewife  prefers 
to  buy  from  a  neighbor  rather  than  to  go  to  the  labor  of  churning 
the  small  quantity  needed  for  the  home  table.  The  writer  has 
met  a  few  enterprising  farmers  doing  a  flourishing  business  in 
providing  butter,  cured  meats,  and  eggs  to  neighboring  farmers. 


356  DAIRY  BUTTER  MAKING 

The  causes  of  difficult  churning  in  winter  are  practically 
only  two  in  number.  First,  the  cream  from  which  the  butter  is 
attempted  to  be  made  has  too  often  been  kept  so  cold  that  the 
bacteria  producing  the  lactic  acid,  which  in  turn  makes  the 
casein  of  the  cream  brittle,  have  not  been  able  to  grow.  Thus 
the  cream  remains  sweet  and  tough,  almost  leathery  in  consist- 
ency. To  overcome  this  difficulty  the  cream  must  be  warmed 
and  given  time  to  sour.  The  second  cause  is  a  low  temperature. 
Butter  fat  at  a  temperature  of  100  degrees  F.  is  a  liquid,  while 
the  same  globules  at  a  temperature  of  40  and  even  at  50  degrees 
are  so  hard  that  they  cannot  stick  together  when  they  do  touch 
in  the  churning  process  any  more  than  two  tallow  or  wax  candles 
will  adhere  when  knocked  together.  There  is  no  necessity  for 
consuming  more  than  half  an  hour  in  the  churning  process.  To 
obtain  results,  however,  it  is  essential  that  the  cream  be  sour  and 
that  the  temperature  be  high  enough  to  cause  the  butter  fat  to  be 
slightly  sticky.  The  churning  temperature  will  vary  all  the  way 
from  55  degrees  in  summer  up  to  65  degrees  in  winter.  The 
higher  temperatures  will  be  needed  where  the  cows  are  fed 
considerable  quantities  of  cottonseed  meal,  lower  temperatures 
where  more  com  is  fed.  As  a  general  rule  56  to  60  degrees  will 
be  found  desirable  in  the  west  and  58  to  64  degrees  in  Xew  Eng- 
land and  the  southern  states.  With  cream  adequately  ripened 
the  length  of  time  required  to  churn  will  regulate  the  tempera- 
ture at  which  to  chum.  While  it  is  true  that  stale  cows  and  dry 
feed  aggravate  the  case  they  become  of  little  importance  to  one 
who  will  remember  to  "  sour  the  cream  and  churn  at  60." 

Butter  Overrun. — The  question  is  often  asked  why  or  how 
it  is  that  the  creamery  managers  can  pay  to  the  farmer  as  many 
cents  per  pound  for  the  fat  as  are  received  for  the  finished  butter. 
The  question  also  frequently  calls  into  question  the  accuracy  or 
honesty  of  the  testing.  Then  when  the  farmer  is  able  to  churn  a 
quantity  of  cream  and  from  it  secure  considerably  more  butter 
than  he  could  be  given  credit  for  in  pounds  of  fat  at  the  cream- 
ery, he  is  convinced  that  fraud  has  been  perpetrated  upon  him. 
To  both  these  questions  the  answer  may  be  given  that  the  result 


THE  COMPOSITION  OF  BUTTER  357 

is  due  to  the  overrun,  and  that  by  overrun  is  meant  the  increase 
in  quantity  of  butter  over  butter  fat  secured  by  churning.  The 
butter  fat  paid  for  at  the  creamery  is  the  clear  oil.  Butter  is  not 
all  oil,  but  contains  water,  salt  and  curd  also.  The  analysis  of 
100  pounds  of  ordinary  butter  shows  a  composition  about  as 
follows : 

Per  Cent 

Water    14 

Salt     • 2% 

Curd    1 

171/2 
Fat    82% 

100 

In  other  words,  82.5  pounds  of  fat,  by  the  addition  of  water,  salt, 
and  curd,  has  been  made  to  become  100  pounds  of  butter. 


Viewing  the  same  matter  slightly  differently  we  may  figu 


re 


that  100  pounds  of  fat  taking  up  19  pounds  of  water,  3.5  pounds 
of  salt,  and  1  pound  of  curd,  will  produce  123.5  pounds  of  butter. 

In  good  home  dairy  practice  the  test  of  the  cream  may  be 
ascertained  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy  by  churning  it,  weigh- 
ing the  butter,  and  subtracting  from  the  weight  of  the  butter, 
one-sixth  its  weight,  and  then  dividing  the  remaining  five-sixths 
weight  by  the  number  of  pounds  of  cream  used  at  the  start.  This 
method  of  checking  should  show  an  agreement  within  2  per 
cent  of  fat  with  that  allowed  at  the  creamery. 

Under  skillful  method  of  manufacture  the  quantity  of  butter 
over  fat  may  be  as  high  as  22  per  cent  without  the  incorporation 
of  such  a  quantity  of  water  or  salt  as  to  render  the  butter  either 
inferior  or  illegal.  And  if  the  overrun  falls  as  low  as  about  16 
per  cent  regularly,  something  is  wrong.  The  cream  may  be 
inaccurately  sampled  or  tested,  the  fat  loss  in  the  buttermilk  may 
be  excessive  or  some  other  leak  is  present.  Buttermilk  should 
not  test  more  than  0.05  or  0.09  per  cent  fat. 

The  composition  of  butter  varies  somewhat  with  the 
methods  and  temperatures  used  in  making.     Butter  may  easily 


358  DAIRY  BUTTER  MAKING 

vary  in  composition,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  table  of  com- 
position of  two  samples,  A  and  B : 

A  B 

Per  Cent  Per  Cent 

Water     12  15 

Salt    2  3 

Curd  1  1 

Fat    85  81 

Totals     100  100 

It  will  be  noted  from  the  above  two  examples  that  whereas  in 
"  A  "  85  pounds  of  fat  were  required  to  produce  100  pounds  of 
butter,  only  81  pounds  were  required  to  produce  100  pounds  in 
the  case  of  "  B,"  a  difference  of  4  pounds,  which  at  25  cents 
per  pound  would  make  a  difference  of  one  dollar  per  100  pounds, 
or  one  cent  a  pound.  Differences  even  greater  than  those  indi- 
cated occur  in  practice.  The  amount  of  butter  which  a  given 
quantity  of  cream  will  produce  will  easily  be  one-sixth  greater 
than  the  amount  of  fat  in  that  cream,  as  shown  by  the  Babcock 
test,  and  many  calculate  butter  yield  on  the  basis  of  one-fifth 
increase.  It  is  not  desirable  that  the  butter-maker  endeavor  to 
incorporate  any  unusual  amount  of  water.  There  is  danger 
that  an  illegal  amount  be  retained  as  well  as  danger  of  an  infe- 
rior article  being  produced.  It  is  desirable,  however,  that  from 
2^2  to  3  per  cent  salt  be  incorporated.  This  is  to  assist  in  pre- 
serving the  butter,  while  it  is  being  held  at  moderate  tempera- 
tures. In  cold  storage  where  all  is  frozen  hard  the  unsalted 
butter  keeps  as  well  as  the  salted  (Fig.  119). 

Market  Classes  of  Butter — Butter  now  made  in  America 
possesses  all  shades  of  quality  from  the  choice  creamery,  scor- 
ing 96  to  97  per  cent  and  commanding  several  cents  premium  in 
price,  to  packing  stock  or  renovating  stock  which  cannot  well  be 
scored  and  is  a  drug  on  the  market  at  less  than  half  the  price 
paid  for  the  best. 

The  butter  which  makes  the  market,  however,  scores  usually 
between  85  and  95  per  cent.  The  grade  is  established  by  a  score 
based  on  the  several  qualities  that  the  butter  should  possess.  In 
the  following  table  are  shown  the  points  considered,  the  weight 


FORMS  OF  SELLING  359 

or  count  given  to  each  and  essentially  or  approximately  how 
butter  of  the  four  recognized  grades  would  score.  The  flavor  is 
most  important,  yet  the  body  may  be  "  weak  "  or  "  crumbly" ; 
the  color  a  little  "  wavy  " ;  the  salt  too  light  or  "  undissolved/' 
or  the  package  "  untidy  "  or  damaged. 

Score  Cards  Market  Classes  and  Scores 

Points  Full  Score    Choice         Extra  Firsts  Seconds 

Flavor   45  41  39  37  35.5 

Body    25  25  25  24  23.5 

Color    15  15  14.5  14.5  14 

Salt     10  10  9.5  9.5  9.5 

Package    5  5               5  5  4.5 

Total    Score 100  96  93  90  87 

Price   (Illustrative)    35c  34c  31c  28c 

Forms  of  Selling — In  what  form  it  is  preferable  to  sell  the 
product  of  the  dairy  will  naturally  be  settled  in  many  or  most 
places  by  local  circumstances.  Yet  some  producers  are  so  located 
that  the  product  may  be  sold  as  market  milk,  as  sweet  cream,  or 
as  butter  fat  contained  in  cream.  If  butter  fat  is  worth  30 
cents  per  pound,  how  will  the  sale  of  sweet  20  per  cent  cream  at 
60  cents  per  gallon  compare  with  it  ?  If  we  assume  a  dairy  of 
twenty  cows  yielding  25  pounds  per  day  per  cow  or  500  pounds 
of  3.6  per  cent  milk  we  shall  have  18  pounds  (500  X  -036  =  IS) 
fat,  which  at  30  cents  per  pound  is  worth  $5.40.  If  this  be  sold 
in  the  form  of  30  per  cent  cream  there  will  be  60  pounds  of  such 
cream  and  440  pounds  of  skim  milk,  which,  at  40  cents  per  hun- 
dred, has  a  value  of  $1.76,  making  a  total  of  $7.16. 

The  500  pounds  of  3.6  per  cent  milk  will  produce  90  pounds 
of  20  per  cent  cream. 

Pounds  Milk   :  pounds  cream   :  :   per  cent  cream   :   per  cent  milk 
500  :  x  ::  20  :  3.6 

Since  20  per  cent  cream  weighs  8.44  pounds  per  gallon  there 
will  be  10.66  gallons  of  cream,  which  at  60  cents  per  gallon  will 
be  worth  $6.40.  The  skim  milk  remaining  (500  pounds  milk 
minus  90  pounds  cream  equals  410  pounds  skim  milk)  is  worth 
about  40  cents  per  hundred  or  $1.64,     This  brings  the  total 


360 


DAIRY  BUTTER  MAKING 


pSBTtnsqp 


FORMS  OF  SELLING  361 

receipts  up  to  $8.04.  This  shows  a  profit  in  sweet  cream  selling 
over  selling  fat  for  butter-making  purposes  of  88  cents  per  day 
on  a  herd  of  20  cows.  In  practice  a  slightly  smaller  sum  would 
be  received  because  of  the  mechanical  losses  of  fat  in  handling. 

If  the  same  milk  were  sold  at  $1.50  per  hundred  it  would 
bring  $7.50,  or  54  cents  less  than  in  the  selling  of  sweet  cream 
and  34  cents  more  than  in  selling  butter  fat. 

If  butter  be  made  on  the  farm  from  the  same  milk  there 


Fig.   120. — Cooperative  creameries  make  dairying  profitable. 

will  be  made  about  21  pounds.  If  this  is  sold  at  30  cents  per 
pound  the  sum  of  $6.30  will  be  realized.  To  this  amount  should 
be  added  the  value  of  the  skim  milk  and  the  buttermilk  remain- 
ing, which  will  be  about  480  pounds.  This  will  be  worth  about 
$1.92,  or  a  total  of  $8.22. 

Summarizing  results  we  see  that  500  pounds  of  3.6  per  cent 
milk  sold  in  the  four  different  ways  bring  the  following  results : 

Milk  will  bring  in $7.50 

Sweet  cream  will  bring  in 8.04 

Butter  fat  will  bring  in  7.16 

Butter  will  bring  in   8.22 


362  DAIRY  BUTTER  MAKING 

In  addition  to  the  figures  given  there  must  always  be  taken 
into  account  the  equipment  and  labor  cost  of  caring  for  and  de- 
livering to  market  the  commodities.  Where  cooperative  cream- 
eries are  organized  a  satisfactory  method  of  marketing  is  estab- 
lished (Fig.  120). 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  should  farm  butter  making  be  practiced? 

2.  How  should  cream  be  held  while  collecting  enough  to  churn?    How  cold? 

3.  What  is  churning? 

4.  Tell  how  to  get  a  wooden  churn  ready  for  use. 

5.  When  and  how  is  butter  colored? 

6.  How  long  should  it  take  to  churn? 

7.  When  should  the  churning  be  stopped? 

8.  Why  and  how  is  salt  added? 

9.  Why  and  how  is  butter  "worked"? 

10.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  earthen  jar  and  the 

one-pound  print  as  forms  of  packing  for  market  ? 

11.  How  may  difficult  churning  on  the  farm  in  winter  be  overcome? 

12.  What  is  meant  by  overrun  in  butter  making? 

lit.  Under  what  conditions  will  unsalted  butter  keep  as  well  as  salted? 

14.  What  causes  light-colored  streaks  or  wavy  marbling  in  butter? 

15.  Upon  what  points  is  butter  scored? 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

TESTS  NECESSARY  IN  CREAMERIES 
The  butter  fat  test  is  naturally  the  most  important  (Chapter 
XXVIII,  yet  the  proper  conduct  of  any  creamery  includes  sev- 
eral others  as  well  (Fig.  121). 

The  acid  test  is  a  method  of  determining  the  quantity  of 
acid  in  or  degree  of  sourness  of  a  cream  by  the  use  of  an  alkali 
solution.  This  is  made  by  dissolving  4  grams  of  caustic 
(KOH)  in  1000  c.c.  pure  water.  This  is  a  simple  titration  of 
an  alkali  solution  of  known  strength  against  a  known  amount 
of  sour  cream  of  unknown  acid  strength  in  the  presence  of 
phenolphthalein  as  an  indicator,  two  or  three  drops  being  used. 
So  long  as  the  mixture  of  cream  and  alkali  solution  remains 
white  the  acid  is  in  excess.  When  the  acid  is  killed  the  whole 
mixture  turns  pink.  If  17.6  c.c.  of  cream  be  taken  as  sample  a 
normal  acidity  would  require  the  use  of  about  12  c.c.  of  the  alkali 
solution,  which  would  indicate  the  presence  of  about  0.61  per 
cent  acid.  The  formula  usually  employed  in  the  determination 
of  acid  is  that  devised  by  Dr.  Manns : 

c.c.  alkali  X  .009  .,  1nn  .    ,     ., 

; r-  X  100  =  per  cent  of  acid. 

c.c.  sample  used 

The  lime  water  test  for  acid  is  cheaper  and  easier  of  opera- 
tion than  the  Manns  and  sufficiently  accurate  when  used  on  sour 
creams.  The  lime  water  is  made  by  putting  a  quantity  of  quick 
or  air-slacked  lime  in  any  convenient  jar,  covering  with  water, 
stirring  and  letting  stand  for  sixty  hours  or  more  in  order  that 
the  water  shall  have  taken  up  all  the  lime  possible.  When  the 
solution  has  reached  its  condition  of  constant  strength  the  clear 
liquid  should  be  poured  or  drawn  off  into  a  separate  bottle  and 
more  water  added  to  the  lime  and  stirred  for  a  later  usage.  To 
make  the  test  17.6  c.c.  of  sour  cream  are  then  measured  into  a 


364 


TESTS  NECESSARY  IN  CREAMERIES 


white  cup  and  the  rinsings  of  the  pipette  added  to  the  cream  in 
the  cup.  Three  or  four  drops  of  phenolphthalein  indicator  are 
then  added  to  the  sample.  The  lime  water  is  then  added  from  a 
graduated  cylinder  or  a  burette  until  a  delicate  permanent  pink 
color  is  reached.     So  long  as  the  mixture  remains  colorless,  acid 


Fia.  121. — Dairy  School  students  checking  up  their  work  by  means  of  the  Babcock  test. 

predominates.  When  a  constant  pink  color  appears  it  may  be 
judged  that  the  free  acid  has  been  destroyed  by  the  lime  water. 
The  quantity  of  lime  water  used  may  then  be  read  from  the 
cylinder.     The  amount  of  acid  in  the  cream  will  be  indicated  by 


TESTS  NECESSARY  IN  CREAMERIES  365 

dividing  the  number  of  cubic  centimeters  of  lime  water  re- 
quired for  neutralization  by  5.     Thus : 

c.c.  lime  water  w  1  ,     ,      ., 
X  77C  =  per  cent  of  acid. 

Thus,  if  a  cream  be  so  sour  as  to  require  30  c.c.  of  saturated 
lime  water  to  neutralize  the  acid  in  17.6  c.c.  of  cream,  we  have 

30 

_  =:  6,  or  0.60  per  cent  acid.   The  lime  water  test  will  not  work 

on  sweet  milk  or  cheese  making,  but  is  of  value  in  farm  or 
creamery  butter  making. 

The  moisture  test  is  used  to  determine  the  amount  of 
moisture  in  finished  butter  and  its  use  is  highly  important,  espe- 
cially in  preventing  the  incorporation  of  an  illegal  quantity  of 
water.  Butter  must  contain  some  water  to  dissolve  the  salt  and 
to  prevent  an  oily  taste.  This  is  accomplished  by  about  14  or 
15  per  cent  moisture.  The  law  in  many  states  and  a  ruling  of 
the  Internal  Revenue  Department  of  the  Federal  Government 
make  a  butter  illegal  if  it  contains  16  per  cent  or  more  of 
moisture. 

The  test  is  made  by  warming  a  carefully  taken  sample  and 
mixing  it  into  a  paste  and  then  carefully  weighing  out  into  an 
aluminum  cup  10  grams  or  20  grams,  according  to  test  used. 
The  sample  is  then  heated  slowly  over  an  alcohol  lamp  or 
other  flame  until  the  water  is  entirely  expelled  from  the  sample. 
The  complete  absence  of  moisture  is  indicated  by  a  slight  brown- 
ing of  the  sample.  The  sample  is  then  re-weighed.  The  per- 
centage amount  of  water  originally  present  is  shown  by  the 
percentage  amount  of  loss  occasioned  by  drying.  The  apparatus 
for  making  this  test  is  not  expensive  and  it  is  highly  important 
that  it  be  used  regularly  in  creamery  butter-making. 

Salt  Test. — The  salt  test  now  usually  employed  is  that  de- 
vised by  Mr.  Gray  of  the  Federal  Dairy  Division.  The 
solution  used  is  one  made  by  dissolving  5.81  grams  silver 
nitrate  in  2000  cc.  pure  water.  The  indicator  used  is  potassium 
chromate.  Ten  grams  of  butter  to  be  tested  are  weighed 
into  a  flask,  dissolved  in  hot  water  and  made  up  to  500  c.c, 
50  cc.  of  this  solution  is  then  pipetted  out  and  discharged  into 


366  SALT  TEST 

a  white  porcelain  or  enamel  vessel.  Two  or  three  drops  of 
potassium  chromate  indicator  are  then  added  to  the  solution. 
The  silver  nitrate  solution  is  then  added  from  a  burette  until 
the  sample  assumes  a  reddish-brown  color.  Each  c.c.  of  silver 
nitrate  solution  used  will  represent  0.1  per  cent  of  salt.  Thus 
25.5  c.c.  of  solution  used  would  indicate  the  presence  of  2.55 
per  cent  salt  in  the  sample.  The  use  of  a  salt  test  is  essential 
to  uniformity  of  product. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  acid  test  in  hutter  making? 

2.  How  is  it  operated? 

3.  How  may  lime  water  be  used  in  the  place  of  other  neutralizes? 

4.  How  is  the  test  for  moisture  in  butter  operated? 

5.  Explain  the  use  of  the  salt  test. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 
FARM  DAIRY  CHEESE  (GOUDA)1 

There  are  sold  in  America  probably  a  hundred  or  more 
varieties  of  cheese.  Although  by  far  the  greater  portion,  with 
respect  to  quantity,  is  made  here,  the  manifold  kinds  are  largely 
imported  from  Europe,  chiefly  from  Switzerland,  Italy,  France 
and  Germany. 

All  cheese  may  be  divided  into  two  great  classes,  that  made 
from  fresh  sweet  milk  and  that  made  from  milk  which  has 
become,  or  is  made  to  become,  slightly  acid.  The  American 
cheese,  commonly  sold  simply  as  cheese,  is  of  the  acid  curd 
kind,  while  most  of  the  imported  cheeses  are  of  the  sweet  curd 
group.  The  Gouda  is  of  Holland  origin  and  is  one  of  the  sweet 
curd  cheeses.  It  is,  therefore,  more  closely  related  to  the  Brick 
and  the  Swiss  than  to  our  common  cheese. 

The  ordinary  process  by  which  our  American  cheese  is  made 
in  factories  is  not  applicable  to  farm  dairy  cheese  making,  be- 
cause it  requires  too  much  time,  and  is  so  complicated  that  it 
requires  years  of  practice  to  become  sufficiently  familiar  with 
the  varying  conditions  in  which  milk  comes  to  the  vat. 

Process  of  Making. — The  various  changes  that  take  place  in 
milk  nearly  all  develop  in  the  milk  drawn  in  the  evening  and 
kept  over  until  the  following  morning.  So  if  milk  is  made  into 
cheese  immediately  after  it  is  drawn,  no  difficulty  will  be  ex- 
perienced, and  by  employing  a  simple  and  short  method  of  manu- 
facture, anyone  at  all  accustomed  to  handling  milk  can  make 
a  uniformly  good  cheese  with  the  appliances  found  in  any  well- 
regulated  farm  home. 

The  best  time  to  make  farm  dairy  cheese  is  immediately 
after  milking.  The  milk  should  first  be  poured  from  one  vessel 
to  another  in  some  locality  where  the  air  is  pure  and  fresh, 
raising  the  vessel  from  which  the  milk  is  poured  high,  so  the 

1  Adapted  in  part  from  Minnesota  Circular,  "  Farm  Dairy  Cheese." 

367 


368  FARM  DAIRY  CHEESE  (GOUDA) 

air  can  pass  through  the  milk  and  cany  off  the  animal  odor. 
The  milk  is  then  poured  into  the  vat,  or  if  no  vat  is  available  a 
large  wash  boiler  may  be  used.  It  is  not  necessary  to  use  cheese 
color,  but  if  it  is  desired  that  the  cheese  look  rich  about  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  cheese  color  to  sixteen  gallons  of  milk  may  be  used. 
The  color  is  best  mixed  by  means  of  a  large  dipper,  filling  it 
half  full  of  milk,  mixing  the  color  thoroughly  in  it  and  stirring 
it  into  the  milk. 

At  this  point  the  milk  is  heated,  if  necessary,  to  make  certain 
it  has  a  temperature  of  86  to  89  degrees.  It  may  be  heated 
by  setting  it  on  the  stove  for  a  short  time,  stirring  continually. 
Hot  water  must  not  be  added  to  warm  milk,  it  retards  greatly 
the  rennet  action.  The  rennet  extract  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce 
to  a  hundred  pounds  or  twelve  gallons  of  milk  is  now  added. 
It  should  first  have  been  diluted  in  about  ten  times  its  bulk  of 
cold  water  before  adding.  It  must  be  well  stirred  into  the  milk. 
The  milk  should  begin  to  curdle  in  from  ten  to  twelve  minutes. 

If  rennet  tablets  are  used  to  curdle  the  milk  it  is  best  to 
use  one  small  tablet  for  every  five  gallons  of  milk,  or  one  large 
tablet  to  twenty-five  gallons  of  milk.  Small  tablets  are  about 
the  size  of  a  dime;  large  tablets  are  about  the  size  of  a  silver 
quarter  of  a  dollar.  The  rennet  may  be  procured  from  any 
creamery  supply  house. 

To  add  the  rennet,  if  tablets  are  used,  the  required  amount 
is  first  dissolved  in  a  small  quantity  of  cold  water  and  then 
poured  into  the  milk.  Great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  have 
the  milk  at  a  temperature  below  86  degrees  when  the  rennet  is 
put  in,  and  it  should  not  be  above  90  degrees  afterward.  The 
milk  must  now  be  stirred  gently  for  two  or  three  minutes,  then 
let  stand  until  the  curd  is  firm  enough  to  cut.  To  ascertain  when 
the  curd  is  ready  for  cutting  the  index  finger  is  inserted  into  the 
milk  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  until  the  thumb  nail 
touches  the  milk,  a  slight  notch  is  then  made  in  the  curd  with 
the  thumb,  then  the  finger  is  gently  raised ;  if  the  curd  breaks 
clean  across  it  without  many  flakes  remaining  on  the  finger  it 
is  ready  for  cutting.  With  a  little  practice  one  will  soon  know 
when  the  curd  mass  is  ready  to  cut. 


PROCESS  OF  MAKING  369 

For  cutting,  regular  cheese  knives  are  best,  one  with  hori- 
zontal blades  and  one  with  perpendicular  blades.  In  case  it  is 
intended  to  make  only  a  few  cheeses  a  wire  bread  toaster  or  a 
coil  of  clean  hay  wire  may  be  used,  the  wires  being  about  half 
an  inch  apart.  The  cut  is  first  made  lengthwise,  then  crosswise 
of  the  vat  or  boiler  until  the  curd  is  cut  into  cubes  about  the 
size  of  small  kernels  of  corn. 

After  the  cutting  is  finished  the  curd  is  gently  stirred  by 
hand  for  about  three  minutes,  then  heated  slowly  to  98  or  100 
degrees,  constantly  stirring  gently  while  the  curd  is  being  heated ; 
the  curd  is  kept  at  this  temperature  for  about  forty  minutes. 
To  tell  when  the  curd  is  sufficiently  cooked  a  handful  is  squeezed 
gently,  held  for  a  moment,  then  the  hand  is  opened  and  if  the 
curd  falls  apart  it  is  firm  enough.  As  soon  as  the  curd  is  suffi- 
ciently cooked  the  whey  is  drawn  off  and  the  mold  is  filled  by 
taking  a  double  handful  at  a  time  and  pressing  gently  into  the 
mold,  continuing  until  the  mold  is  full  and  well  rounded  up. 


Fig.   122. — A  simple  cheese  press  for  farm  dairy  cheese  making. 

The  cheese  curd  is  then  taken  out  of  the  mold  and  turned 
upside  down  and  replaced  The  cover  is  put  on  and  the  whole  is 
put  into  the  press,  which  may  be  a  simple,  old-fashioned  lever 
press,  illustrated  in  the  accompanying  cut  (Fig.  122).  The 
stick  should  be  about  twelve  feet  long.  A  broken  wagon  tongue 
or  fence  rail  answers  the  purpose  very  well.  A  pail  containing 
a  few  cobble  stones  will  answer  for  a  weight.  Regular  Gouda 
molds  are  best,  but  any  tin  or  wooden  receptacle  will  answer 
if  small  holes  are  made  in  it  to  permit  the  whey  to  escape.  The 
cheese  should  be  from  eight  to  ten  inches  in  diameter  and  about 
three  or  four  inches  high.  The  box  upon  which  the  mold  is  to 
be  placed  is  set  about  three  feet  from  a  wall,  post  or  tree  on 


370  FARM  DAIRY  CHEESE  (GOUDA) 

which  a  slat  is  nailed,  under  which  the  end  of  the  stick  is  placed. 
A  board  block  about  six  inches  in  diameter  is  set  on  the  mold, 
on  this  the  stick  is  rested.  Full  pressure  is  not  applied  at  first, 
but  the  pail  is  hung  about  half  way  between  the  mold  and  the 
end  of  the  stick.  The  cheese  remains  a  few  hours  in  the  press 
and  is  then  taken  out  and  dressed. 

To  dress  a  cheese  it  is  first  put  into  warm  water  and  a  piece 
of  cheesecloth  about  six  inches  wide  and  long  enough  to  go  around 
the  cheese  is  wrapped  smoothly  around  the  cheese  and  folded 
down  over  the  sides ;  then  a  cap  is  put  on  each  side.  The  cheese 
is  then  returned  to  the  mold.  Both  are  put  under  the  press, 
moving  the  pail  to  the  end  of  the  stick.  The  cheese  is  left  in 
the  press  for  about  twelve  hours,  then  taken  out  and  salted. 

The  cheese  may  be  either  dry-salted  or  brine-salted.  Brine- 
salting  is  the  better  way.  A  solution  of  salt  and  water  is  made 
as  strong  as  it  can  possibly  be  made ;  the  cheese  is  put  in  this  and 
salt  is  sprinkled  on  the  exposed  surface.  The  cheese  is  left  in 
this  for  thirty-six  hours,  being  turned  every  twelve  hours. 
When  salted  sufficiently  long  the  cheese  should  be  removed  from 
the  brine,  soft  cloths  left  on,  wiped  dry  and  laid  on  a  cellar  shelf. 
After  about  two  or  three  days,  when  the  cheese  has  become  fairly 
dry  on  the  outside,  it  should  be  dipped  in  hot  paraffin.  This  is 
done  to  kill  all  mold  spores  that  have  lodged  on  the  moist  surface 
and  also  to  keep  the  cheese  moist  by  preventing  the  evaporation 
of  water. 

The  temperature  best  adapted  for  curing  is  from  75  to  85 
degrees.  The  cheese  will  be  ready  for  use  in  from  two  to  four 
months.  The  lighter  the  cheese  is  salted  the  sooner  mil  it  be 
ready  for  use,  and  the  more  the  curd  is  cooked  the  slower  it  will 
be  in  ripening  and  the  longer  it  will  keep. 

Yield,  Cost  and  Value. — Cheese  removes  from  the  milk  most 
of  the  casein  and  fat  but  practically  none  of  the  sugar  and  albu- 
men. Yet  a  yield  of  cheese  equal  to  about  10  per  cent  of  the 
weight  of  the  milk  may  be  expected,  because  in  the  cheese  there 
must  and  will  be  some  water.  A  hundred  pounds  of  milk  test- 
ing 3.7  per  cent  fat  will  yield  about  10  pounds  of  cheese.  The 
butter  value  of  the  milk  at  30  cents  per  pound  for  fat  would  be 


QUESTIONS  371 

about  $1.11  and  the  skim  milk  about  20  cents  more,  making  a 
total  of  about  $1.30  per  hundred.  The  10  pounds  of  cheese 
would  be  worth,  if  purchased,  about  25  cents  per  pound  or  $2.50, 
and  the  whey  about  10  cents  more,  making  about  $2.60;  or,  in 
other  words,  the  cheese  for  the  farm  home  may  be  made  at  home 
for  less  than  half  the  usual  retail  price. 

A  gallon  of  milk  weighs  about  8.6  pounds  and  will  make 
about  0.85  pound  of  cheese.  Therefore,  to  make  a  cheese  weigh- 
ing from  six  to  seven  pounds,  seven  to  eight  gallons  of  milk  will 
be  required.  Home-made  Grouda  has  a  food  value  equal  to 
American  cheese  and  greater  than  many  imported  varieties. 
With  a  little  experience  cheese  may  be  made  during  May  and 
October  to  supply  the  table  the  year  around. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  To  what  class  of  cheese  does  the  Gouda  belong? 

2.  How  many  pounds  of  cheese  will  eight  gallons  of  milk  make? 

3.  At  butter  prices  for  fat  in  milk  what  will  farni-made  cheese  cost  per 

pound  ? 

4.  How  may  a  constant  supply  for  the  home  table  be  most  conveniently 

made  ? 

5.  Why  is  cheese  not  more  generally  made  on  farms? 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 

COTTAGE    CHEESE 

Food  Value — Cost. — Cottage  cheese,  made  from  skim  milk, 
is  one  of  the  most  healthful  and  economical  as  well  as  tasty 
foods  which  can  be  provided  for  the  farm  table.  The  usually 
calculated  value  of  skim  milk  for  stock  feeding  is  about  25  cents 
a  hundred.  One  hundred  pounds  of  skim  milk  will  produce 
from  14  to  16  pounds  of  cottage  cheese,  thus  entailing  a  cost 
of  about  2  cents  per  pound.  While  such  cheese  is  about  two- 
thirds  water,  which  would  advance  the  cost  of  the  solid  sub- 
stances eaten  to  about  6  cents  per  pound,  it  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  ordinary  meat  costing  from  15  to  25  cents  per  pound  is 
likewise  about  two-thirds  water;  also  that  even  at  6  cents  per 
pound  for  the  solid  substance  of  cottage  cheese  the  fact  that  it 
is  rich  in  protein,  making  for  muscular  growth,  gives  it,  in 
reality,  a  higher  value  than  cereals  which  could  be  bought  at 
the  same  price  per  pound. 

Method  of  Making. — The  making  of  cottage  cheese  or  pot 
cheese,  though  simple,  is  controlled  by  certain  principles  which 
make  for  quality.  Flavor  is  the  quality  first  to  be  considered. 
This  can  be  controlled  only  by  governing  the  character  of  the 
milk  used.  While  not  a  very  sensitive  product  cottage  cheese 
is  the  most  tasty  when  clean  sweet  milk  is  properly  soured  at  a 
temperature  of  about  70  to  75  degrees  F.  A  higher  temperature, 
one  ranging  in  the  neighborhood  of  90  degrees,  is  liable  to  pro- 
duce gassy  fermentations  and  foul  odors,  and  a  temperature  lower 
than  70  degrees  retards  the  growth  of  the  bacteria  which  produce 
the  acid,  and  thus  causes  a  waste  of  time,  and  if  too  cold  the 
souring  process  can  scarcely  continue  at  all.  At  times,  too,  it 
is  necessary  to  add  to  the  skim  milk  to  be  soured  a  little  starter 
in  the  nature  of  clean,  sharp  buttermilk  or  a  small  quantity  of 
plain  milk  which  has  previously  become  sour.  If  the  milk  be- 
comes too  sour  the  tendency  is  to  produce  a  hard,  dry,  sawdust- 
like product,  one  not  usually  relished.  When  the  milk  has 
372 


FINISHING  373 

curdled,  not  too  thick,  it  should  be  cut  into  little  squares  or 
cubes  by  means  of  an  ordinary  knife  or  a  wire  bread  toaster  may 
be  used  if  a  larger  quantity  is  being  produced.  This  done,  the 
temperature  of  the  entire  mass  should  be  raised,  either  by  heat- 
ing on  the  stove  or  by  pouring  hot  water  into  the  curd  mass. 
This  is  done  for  the  purpose  of  "  cooking  "  or  hardening  the 
curd.  Water  should  not  be  added  when  the  heating  can  be  done 
the  other  way,  as  it  removes  flavor.  The  temperature  should  be 
raised  slowly  with  frequent  stirring  until  a  temperature  of  from 
115  to  125  degrees  has  been  reached.  The  lower  temperature 
would  be  used  with  very  sour  milk,  the  higher  with  milk  not 
so  sour.  If,  however,  the  milk  is  really  not  sour  enough  when 
the  heating  is  done  it  will  produce  a  rubbery  mass,  one  not 
usually  favored.  The  effect  of  high  acid  is  to  produce  dry  hard 
curd;  the  effect  of  high  heat  is  to  produce  rubbery  curd;  the 
effect  of  long-continued  heat  is  to  produce  a  hard  curd.  The 
total  time  of  cooking  will  require  from  twelve  to  eighteen 
minutes.  At  this  point  experience  only  can  indicate  just  when 
to  stop  the  cooking  process.  The  curd  should  be  fairly  firm  but 
not  hard.  The  whey  is  removed  most  easily  by  pouring  the 
entire  mass  into  a  cheesecloth  bag,  and  permitting  it  to  hang 
until  thoroughly  drained.  A  better  way,  however,  is  to  wash 
the  curd  in  cold  water  as  soon  as  the  cooking  is  complete.  This 
cools  and  washes  the  curd,  and  it  keeps  better. 

Finishing. — After  the  moisture  has  been  fairly  well,  but  not 
wholly  drained  or  pressed  out,  the  curd  may  be  thoroughly 
worked  up  by  means  of  a  ladle,  or  if  rather  firm,  by  hand.  Many, 
however,  prefer  that  the  curd  remain  in  large  flakes  and  lumps 
rather  than  in  fine  form,  in  which  case  the  curd  should  be  cut  in 
large  squares,  stirred  carefully,  and  mixed  with  a  silver  fork 
gently.  During  this  mixing  process  the  salt  should  be  added,  and 
if  desired,  a  small  quantity  of  pepper,  preferably  white  pepper. 
At  this  point  cream  may  be  added  to  further  increase  the  tasty 
quality  and  food  value  of  the  cheese.  When  thoroughly  mixed 
to  an  even  consistency  it  may  be  made  up  into  little  patty-cake 
balls  by  rolling  in  the  hands  or,  if  desired  especially  for  market, 
may  be  printed  the  same  as  butter  into  pound   prints,   and 


374  COTTAGE  CHEESE 

wrapped  in  parchment  or  paraffin  paper  to  prevent  its  drying 
too  rapidly.  In  this  form  it  may  or  may  not,  according  to  the 
local  demands,  be  inserted  into  a  paraffined  butter  carton,  where 
it  will  preserve  its  quality  for  a  somewhat  longer  time  than  if 
left  more  or  less  exposed. 

Short  Lived. — Cottage  cheese  is  short  lived.  For  best  re- 
sults it  should  be  consumed  the  same  day  that  it  is  made.  If 
held,  it  should  be  in  a  cold  refrigerator  to  prevent  excessive 
souring,  and  even  under  favorable  conditions,  cannot  be  ex- 
pected to  retain  its  quality  longer  than  from  two  to  four  days. 

As  now  made  in  factories,  howrever,  and  stored  in  commercial 
refrigerators,  cottage  cheese  keeps  well  for  3  to  6  months,  be- 
cause so  well  washed  and  cooled  after  heating  or  cooking,  and 
because  frozen  solid  like  butter  soon  afterwards. 

Skim  milk  will  yield  from  14  to  16  pounds  of  cottage  cheese 
per  hundred  pounds  of  milk,  and  when  the  cheese  is  seasoned, 
and  a  small  quantity  of  cream  added,  and  when  put  on  the 
market  in  attractive  form,  usually  brings  10  cents  per  pound. 

Farmers'  wives  generally  should  make  more  use  of  cottage 

cheese  on  their  home  tables  and  some  are  so  situated  that  they 

could  earn  nice  pin  money  by  putting  a  tasty  cheese  on  the  local 

market. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  food  value  and  cost  per  pound  of  cottage  cheese? 

2.  What  is  the  effect  of  high  acid  on  condition  of  curd  ? 

3.  What  is  the  effect  of  high  temperature  on  texture  of  finished  cheese  T 

4.  How  long  will  cottage  cheese  keep  its  quality  if  kept  cold? 

5.  What   are   the  benefits   in   washing   the   curd   in  cold  water    soon   after 

cooking  ? 


CHAPTER  XXXV 

ICE  CREAM 

Ice  cream  is  one  of  the  most  universally  favored  desserts 
in  America.  It  is  sold  in  most  candy,  fruit  and  drug  stores 
and  served  at  practically  all  hotels  in  this  country,  yet  is  little 
known  in  most  European  cities.  The  ocean  liners  serve  ice 
cream  to  the  passengers  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  yet  the  ice 
cream  is  practically  all  secured  in  the  United  States  and  stored 
even  for  months  on  the  vessel.  Ice  cream  likewise  is  a  favorite 
dish  in  the  home,  where  large  quantities  are  made  in  small  lots. 

Artificial  cooling  in  a  simple  way  has  been  known  for  cen- 
turies and  the  making  of  a  frozen  food  somewhat  resembling 
our  ice  cream  has  been  practiced  for  several  hundred  years. 
But  the  ice  cream  industry  as  known  to-day  started  in  1852  in 
Baltimore. 

The  making  of  ice  cream  and  shipping  it  even  long  dis- 
tances is  now  a  well-organized  industry  which  consumes  about 
100,000,000  pounds  of  butter  fat  annually. 

The  formula  used  is  important,  but  little  more  so  than  the 
method  of  freezing  and  storing.  For  best  results  there  should 
not  be  to  exceed  141/4  per  cent  sugar  in  the  finished  article.  This 
is  attained  by  adding  one  part  sugar  for  every  six  parts  of  liquid 
or  one  pint  sugar  to  three  quarts  cream,  for  a  six-quart  freezer. 
For  a  gallon  freezer  the  following  formula  has  been  found  good : 

Rich  Formula  Children's  Formula 

2  qts.  20  per  cent  cream  1  qt.  20  per  cent  cream 

*/a  pint  sugar  1   qt.   skim  milk 

Vanilla  to  taste  Va  pint  sugar 

Vanilla  to  taste. 

If  eggs  are  used  the  whole  mass  should  be  cooked  into  a 
custard.  This  produces  a  very  rich  tasting  dish  but  one  that 
is  rather  expensive.  In  general  commercial  trade  no  eggs  are 
used.     If  chocolate,  coffee,  or  caramel  flavors  are  desired  in 

375 


376  ICE  CREAM 

addition,  these  flavors  may  be  added  on  top  of  the  vanilla  with 
no  ill  effects,  in  fact  chocolate  ice  cream  is  better  if  there  be  some 
vanilla  present. 

Condensed  milk  is  coming  to  be  very  much  used  in  ice  cream 
to  give  body  and  smoothness.  For  home  Sunday  dinners  it 
might  not  be  worth  while  to  use  condensed  milk,  but  for  any- 
more formal  occasion  where  continued  trade  is  sought  it  cer- 
tainly does  not  pay  to  do  without  it. 

The  addition  of  more  fat,  i.e.,  richer  cream,  will  not  take 
the  place  of  the  smooth  body  of  condensed  milk.  If  the  sweet- 
ened variety  is  used  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  sugar  in 
it.  If  the  unsweetened,  sterilized,  canned  kind  be  used,  care 
needs  be  taken  to  use  not  over  10  to  15  per  cent  of  it,  lest  the 
cooked  taste  be  too  pronounced.  If  condensed  milk  be  used  it 
should  take  the  place  of  an  equal  amount  of  cream  so  that  the 
sugar  proportion  will  remain  constant. 

Formula  With  Condensed  Milk 
1   qt.   20  per  cent  cream 
ly2  pints  whole  milk 
V<2,  pint  condensed  milk. 
Va  pint  sugar 
Vanilla  to  taste. 

This  will  produce  a  smooth  ice  cream  which  will  test  about 
12  or  13  per  cent  fat  and  have  better  body  and  standing-up 
ability  than  when  no  condensed  milk  is  used. 

Ice  cream  powders  are  in  most  cases  simply  mixtures  in 
various  proportions  of  some  East  Indian  gum  with  powdered 
sugar.  Rice  flour  and  starch  are  sometimes  used,  but  are 
not  to  be  recommended.  This  powder  is  used  by  first  being 
thoroughly  mixed  with  the  dry  sugar  and  later  the  sugar  mixture 
is  beaten  into  the  cream.  In  this  way  the  powder  helps  to  "  dry 
out "  the  ice  cream  and  cause  it  to  remain  in  mass  form. 

Gelatin  is  now  used  in  nearly  all  commercial  ice  creams  to 
prevent  the  formation  of  coarse  spines  or  slivers  of  ice  when  the 
cream  stands  a  few  days.  It  is  used  by  first  dissolving  it  in  hot 
water  and  pouring  into  the  cream  while  hot,  stirring  vigorously 


THE  FREEZING  OF  ICE  CREAM  377 

the  while.    A  teaspoonful  of  any  table  gelatin  dissolved  in  half 
a  cup  of  water  will  suffice  for  a  gallon  of  ice  cream. 

Gum  tragacanth,  a  vegetable  gum,  is  used  but  is  not  as 
strong  to  prevent  crystallization  as  gelatin  and  is  more  used  to 
dry  out  the  mix,  to  produce  a  compact  meaty  mass.  This  is 
used  in  the  form  of  a  dry  powder,  preferably  mixed  with  finely 
powdered  sugar  to  aid  distribution. 

The  freezing  of  ice  cream  is  an  easy  matter  provided  too 
much  sugar  has  not  been  used.  Water  freezes  at  32  degrees  F., 
milk  and  cream  at  31  degrees,  and  cream  in  which  14  per  cent 
sugar  has  been  dissolved,  at  28  degrees.  If  more  sugar  be 
added  the  freezing  temperature  will  be  yet  more  depressed. 
Water-ice  and  sherbets  freeze  with  more  difficulty  than  ice 
creams  because  carrying  more  sugar. 

The  best  simple  trick  in  the  matter  of  quick  and  easy  freez- 
ing is  to  pour  cold  water  in  among  the  ice  lumps  and  salt  grains 
before  starting  to  turn  (Fig.  123). 

When  the  mix  is  in  the  freezer  can  and  all  is  adjusted,  cracked 
ice  should  be  added  to  the  freezer  tub  first,  until  about  one-third 
full,  salt  is  then  scattered  over  the  ice,  more  ice  is  then  added 
to  fill  the  tub  nearly  full,  and  salt  again  scattered  on  top  of  the 
ice.  The  ice  should  not  be  packed  about  the  can.  At  this  point 
in  the  process  the  cold  water  is  added  until  it  flows  out  the 
safety  hole  on  the  side.  The  first  thing  noticed  as  a  result  of 
adding  the  water  is  that  it  will  turn  much  easier  than  without  it, 
and  second,  it  will  freeze  in  a  fraction  of  the  time  often  re- 
quired in  the  dry  ice-salt  method.  Moreover,  since  the  mix  is 
comparatively  warm  when  added  and  must  be  cooled  to  about 
30  to  29  degrees  before  the  swell  can  take  place,  it  is  useless  to 
turn  rapidly  at  first.  Butter  lumps  are  formed  by  turning  too 
fast  at  first  and  churning  it.  The  freezing  process  may 
even  be  done  on  time  schedule.  During  the  first  seven  minutes 
after  the  water  has  been  added  the  freezer  crank  should  be 
turned  rapidly,  two  or  three  revolutions,  every  half-minute  to 
keep  the  walls  clear  and  prevent  the  dasher  from  setting.  After 
seven  minutes  of  cooling  the  mix  will  be  nearly  ready  to  freeze 
and  will  be  cool  enough  to  be  viscid.     In  this  condition  it  will 


378 


ICE  CREAM 


retain  a  part  of  the  air  beaten  into  it  by  the  rapid  turning  which 
continues  from  the  seventh  minute  until  the  ice  cream  is  frozen. 
The  whole  process  of  freezing  with  water  as  described  will  not 
take  more  than  twelve  or  thirteen  minutes  and  may  be  done  in 
ten  minutes  with  a  one-  or  two-gallon  freezer  and  in  thirteen 
minutes  with  a  ten-gallon  freezer. 

The  quantity  of  salt  to  use  to  get  quick  freezing  need  not  be 
more  than  one-tenth  of  the  amount  of  ice.     Full  value  of  the 


A 


RoU. 


Fig.   123. — Illustrating  the  addition  of  water  to  the  salt  ice  mixture  to  hasten  the  freezing 
of  the  ice  cream. 

salt  is  secured  by  putting  it  at  the  middle  and  at  the  top  of  the 
ice  so  it  will  work  on  the  ice  as  it  trickles  downward. 

To  freeze  ice  cream  in  ten  minutes  be  sure  the  mix  is  not 
too  sweet  and  then  pour  cold  water  in  among  the  lumps  of  ice. 

Holding  ice  cream  is  best  done  by  packing  solid  in  can  and 
then  dry-packing  the  can,  using  a  coarse  salt  that  will  not  dis- 
solve too  rapidly.  If  for  any  reason  the  ice  cream  melts  and 
then  is  rehardened  without  agitation  it  will  not  be  edible  on 
account  of  spines  of  ice  which  have  formed.  Melting  and  re- 
freezing  is  the  cause  of  coarse  spiny  ice  cream.  The  whole  mass 
may  be  put  into  a  freezer  and  refrozen,  however. 


QUESTIONS  379 

If  several  batches  are  to  be  frozen  in  quick  succession  the 
holding  can  should  be  well  packed  in  ice  and  salt  in  advance. 
A  common  "  shot-gun  "  milk  can  set  in  a  tub  or  half  barrel 
makes  a  very  good  holding  can.  By  transferring  the  freshly 
made  batch  to  the  iced  can  any  desired  amount  may  be  made 
even  with  a  small  freezer. 

The  "  swell  "  in  ice  cream  is  due  to  the  incorporation  of  air 
into  the  cream  just  as  in  whipped  cream  or  beaten  egg.  A  good 
swell  is  100  per  cent,  based  on  the  cream,  i.e.,  not  considering 
the  sugar,  or  85  per  cent  based  on  the  volume  of  total  mix.  A 
better  way  is  to  figure  by  weight.  A  gallon  of  market  ice  cream 
should  not  weigh  over  5.2  pounds  to  the  gallon,  and  5  pounds  is 
enough  for  quality  and  profit. 

QUESTIONS 
1.  How   much   ice   cream    is   consumed   per   capita   in   the   United   States 

annually  ? 
2'.  How  long  has  ice  cream  making  been  carried  on  in  a  wholesale  way? 

3.  Why  and  how  is  condensed  milk  used  in  ice  cream  making? 

4.  Why  and  how  are  ice  cream  powders  used? 

5.  Why  and  how  is  gelatin  used? 

6.  How  may  ice  cream  lie  frozen  in  ten  to  twelve  minutes  with  a  1  to   10 

use  of  salt  and  ice? 

7.  How  may  the  ice  cream  made  be  best  stored  while  more  is  being  frozen? 

8.  Why  is  a  reasonable  "  swell "  desirable  in  ice  cream  ? 


PART  VII 

MARKET  MILK 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 
MARKET  MILK 

By  market  milk  is  meant  that  milk  which  is  consumed  in 
the  form  of  milk,  chiefly  in  cities  and  towns. 

The  importance  of  this  phase  of  the  dairy  industry  has  not 
been  fully  appreciated  by  the  producers  of  milk,  by  the  con- 
sumers, or  by  the  state  institutions  giving  instruction  in  the 
various  phases  of  dairy  husbandry.  From  government  figures  it 
appears  that  421/)  per  cent  0f  a]j  the  milk  produced  by  the  nearly 
twenty-two  million  dairy  cows  in  the  United  States,  is  sent  to 
town  to  be  used  as  milk,  cream  or  condensed  milk,  the  remaining 
571/.  per  cent  being  made  into  butter  (45%),  ice  cream  (6%) 
or  cheese  (4%).  Just  what  portion  of  the  42!/o  per  cent  used 
as  market  milk  is  sold  as  cream  and  what  portion  as  milk  has  not 
been  shown,  but  from  figure®  at  hand  it  would  seem  that  more 
than  half  of  the  fat  sold  in  the  two  has  been  sold  in  milk.  Conse- 
quently, therefore,  about  30  per  cent  of  the  total  milk  flow  finds 
its  way  to  the  consumer  as  milk.  Although  this  quantity  would 
give  to  each  individual  less  than  a  pint  a  day  it  is  well  known 
that  adults,  as  a  rule,  consume  small  quantities  of  milk,  and  that 
the  major  portion  purchased  in  homes  is.  used  as  food  for  infants 
and  young  children.  In  this  connection  it  is  more  than  of  in- 
terest to  note  that  fully  two-thirds  of  the  2,250,000  infants  in 
the  United  States,  or  1,500,000,  are  being  raised  wholly,  or 
very  largely,  upon  the  milk  of  the  cow  rather  than  at  the  breast. 
The  likelihood  of  death  during  the  first  year  of  infants  so  reared 
is  also  known  to  be  about  nine  times  as  great  as  those  nourished 
on  mother's  milk.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  proper  pro- 
duction, care  and  use  of  the  30  per  cent  used  as  infant  food  is 
of  more  vital  consequence  that  the  remaining  70  per  cent  which 
is  being  consumed  by  adults  as  cream,  butter  or  cheese.  Since 
this  minor  quantity  is  of  major  value,  measured  in  consequences, 
every  milk  producer  should  know  more  exactly  what  the  conse- 
quences of  inferior  milk  are.     It,  has  been  demonstrated  that 

383 


384  MARKET  MILK 

where  milk  can  be  secured  clean,  fresh  and  from  healthy  cows 
the  mortality  rate  drops  to  about  two  to  one,  showing  conclu- 
sively that  it  is  not  cow's  milk  per  se,  but  rather  the  condition 
of  the  cow's  milk  which  causes  the  trouble. 

Factors  Influencing  Quality.— Practically  all  unfavorable 
conditions  or  qualities  of  milk  can  be  related  to  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing causes: 

A.  The  Cow  May  be  SicJc. — If  she  is,  her  milk  should  bo 
considered  as  also  out  of  condition  and  undesirable  as  human 
food.  Green  corn  fed  in  excessive  amounts  in  late  summer  or 
early  autumn  will  induce  looseness  on  the  part  of  the  cow,  which 
condition  will  be  promptly  reflected  in  the  child  consuming  the 
milk.  On  the  other  hand,  dry  hay  and  fodder  which  bring 
about  a  constipated  condition  in  the  cow  tend  to  induce  similar 
condition  on  the  part  of  tho  child.  Some  feeds  such  as  corn 
silage  made  from  mature  corn  or  roots  should  be  fed  to  cows 
in  winter  from  which  milk  is  sold  for  infant  feeding,  since  these  . 
feeds  tend  strongly  to  keep  the  cow  in  best  physical  condition. 

B.  Strong  flavored  feeds,  such  as  rye  or  winter  wheat  pasture 
or  the  various  wild  weeds  that  spring  up  in  spring  or  autumn 
in  various  places,  also  produce  a  milk  of  inferior  flavor,  though 
not  particularly  detrimental  if  consumed. 

C.  Air  which  contains  foul  odors  of  any  sort  may  be  the 
source  of  disagreeable  flavors  in  milk.  Milk,  therefore,  should 
be  removed  from  the  stable  promptly  and  kept  in  a  sweet,  fresh 
atmosphere,  in  tho  milk  house.  This  class  of  trouble  is,  however, 
of  small  consequence  compared  with  the  condition  of  the  cow 
and  especially  when  compared  with  the  detrimental  effects  of 
bacteria. 

D.  Bacteria  are  microscopic  plants  which  grow  under  a 
great  variety  of  conditions  all  about  us.  By  far  the  greater 
number  are  of  no  consequence  to  us  so  far  as  our  health  is 
concerned  (Fig.  124).  Milk  produced  in  the  winter  time  in 
the  ordinary  stable  may  contain  a  dozen  or  two  varieties  of 
bacteria,  yet  only  two  or  three  kinds  will  be  found  present 
capable  of  modifying  the  milk  itself  to  any  appreciable  degree. 
The  universally  common  milk  organism  is  the  bacillus  which 
produces  lactic  acid. 


FACTORS  INFLUENCING  QUALITY  385 

This  is  particularly  true  in  summer  when  the  cows  are  on 
pasture.  This  germ  does  not  produce  heat-resisting  spores  and 
is  therefore  easily  killed  by  high  temperature.  Although  this 
organism  is  the  one  which  sours  milk  and  is  so  abundant  in 
buttermilk,  which  is  a  good  beverage  for  both  adults  and  infants, 
it  does  not  follow  that  a  medium  number  in  milk  supposed  to 
be  sweet  would  be  beneficial  to  the  child.  Milk  fed  to  young 
animals,  whether  child,  chicken,  pig  or  calf,  should  be  thoroughly 
sweet  or  fully  sour. 

The  second  most  common  class  of  bacteria  found  in  milk  is 
that  known  as  the  Colon  group,  "  Bacilli  Coli."     There  are 

a<b°Q*>    °     o 
°o    nO  O 


„    esn  o  a 


^.no    00°^c 


A«i»S$ 


°     ■    a00*' 

Fio.  124. — Milk  as  it  appearB  under  the  microscope.  The  clear,  round  fat  globulea 
are  intersperwed  with  bucteria.  Note  relative  Hmallness  of  the  germs,  also  that  the  bacteria 
ure  grouped  in  clusters.      Sec  also  Fig.  I  26,  page  888, 

several  varieties  of  this  class  of  organisms.  Some  have  power 
of  free  movement,  others  have  not,  however,  none  of  them  have 
the  power  of  forming  within  themselves  spores  so  resistant  to 
heat  that  even  boiling  may  not  destroy  them.  They  also  pro- 
duce gas  while  growing.  It  is  the  distending  effect  of  the  gas 
produced  by  the  growth  of  those  bacteria  which  causes  the  pain 
to  infants  suffering  from  cholera  infantum  and  similar  intes- 
tinal disturbances.  The  natural  habitat  or  home  of  this  class 
of  bacteria  is  the  intestinal  tract  of  all  higher  animals,  espe- 
cially cows,  and  they  gain  entrance  into  the  milk  through  par- 
ticles of  manure  which  accidentally  fall  into  the  pail  during 
milking.  Many  other  methods  of  entrance  are  possible,  e.g., 
from  poorly  washed  pails,  or  even  nursing  bottle  and  nipple, 
25 


386 


MARKET  MILK 


Ropy  or  stringy  milk,  if  not  in  this  condition  when  drawn 
from  the  cow,  in  which  case  garget  would  be  indicated,  is  also 
the  work  of  certain  microscopic  plants  which  feed  largely  upon 
the  sugar  of  the  milk  and  reduce  it  to  the  ropy  or  stringy 
character.  This  complaint  is  most  common  in  the  warm  weather 
of  summer  while  cows  are  standing  in  stagnant  pools  of  water 
in  the  pasture.     Ropy  milk  is  not  particularly  injurious,  but 


Score  Card  for  Milk 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,   Bureau   of  Animal  Industry,   Dairy  Division. 
Place 


.  .Exhibit 

No 

ITEM. 

PERFECT 
SCORE. 

SCORE 
ALLOWED. 

REMARKS. 

35 

25 

10 

10 

10 

5 

5 

J  Bacteria  found  per  1 

\     cubic  centimeter   / 
/  Cowy,  Bitter,  Feed,  \ 

Visible  dirt 

\    Flat,  Strong,          / 

Fat 

Acidity 

jCap 

[Bottle 

Total 

100 

Exhibitor, . 
Address, . . 


(Signed) . 


Date, 


19 


JiuJge. 


FACTORS  INFLUENCING  QUALITY 


387 


Directions  for  Scoring. 
BACTERIA  PER  CUBIC  CENTIMETER— PERFECT  SCORE,  35. 

Points 

25,001-  30,000 29.0 

30,001-  35,000 28.0 

35,001-  40,000 27  0 

40,001-  45,000 26.0 

45,001-  50,000 25  0 

50,001-  55,000 24  0 

55,001-  60,000 23  0 

60,001-  65.000 22  0 

65,001-  70,000 21.0 

70,001-  75,000 20  0 

75,001-    " 
80,001- 
85,001- 
90,001- 


POINTS 

Under  500 35.0 

500-   1,000 34.9 

1,001-   1,500 34.8 

1,501-  2,000 34.7 

2,001-  2,500 34.6 

2,501-  3,000 34.5 

3,001-  3,500 34.4 

3,501-  4,000 34.3 

4,001-  5,000 34.0 

5,001-  6,000 33.8 

6,001-  7,000 33.6 

7,001-  8,000 33.4 

8,001-  9,000 33.2 

9,001-10,000 33.0 

10,001-11,000 32.8 

11,001-12,000 32.6 

12,001-13,000 32.4 

13,001-14,000 32.2 

14,001-15,000 32.0 

15,001-20,000 31.0 

20,001-25,000 30.0 


80,000 19.0 

85,000 18.0 

90,000 17.0 

95,000 16.0 

95,001-100,000 15.0 

100,001-120,000 12.5 

120,001-140,000 10.0 

140,001-160,000 7.5 

160,001-180,000 6.0 

180,001-200,000 2.5 

Above  200,000 0.0 


Note. — When   the  number  of  bacteria  per  cubic  centimeter  exceeds  the  local  legal  limit 
the  score  shall  be  0. 

FLAVOR  AND  ODOR— PERFECT  SCORE,  25. 
Deductions  for  disagreeable  or  foreign  odor  or  flavor  should  be  made  according  to  con- 
ditions found.     When  possible  to  recognize  the  cause  of  the  difficulty  it  should  be  described 
under  Remarks. 

VISIBLE  DIRT— PERFECT  SCORE,  10. 
Examination  for  visible  dirt  should  be  made  only  after  the  milk  has  stood  for  some  time 
undisturbed  in  any  way.  Raise  the  bottle  carefully  in  its  natural,  upright  position,  without 
tipping,  until  higher  than  the  head.  Observe  the  bottom  of  the  milk  with  the  naked  eye 
or  by  the  aid  ^1  a  reading  glass.  The  presence  of  the  slightest  movable  speck  makes  a 
perfect  score  impossible.  Further  deductions  should  be  made  according  to  the  amount  of 
dirt  found.     When  possible  the  nature  of  the  dirt  should  be  described  under  Remarks. 


FAT  IN  MILK— PERFECT  SCORE,   10. 
Points 


10 


4.0  per  cent  and  over 

3.9  per  cent 9.8 

3.8  per  cent 9.6 

3.7  per  cent 9.4 

3.6  per  cent 9.2 

3.5  per  cent 9 

3.4  per  cent 8 

3.3  per  cent 7 

Notb. — When  the  per  cent  of  fat  is  less  than  the  local  legal  limit  the  score  shall  be  0 
SOLIDS  NOT  FAT— PERFECT  SCORE 


Points 

6 

5 

....4 


3.2  per  cent 

3.1  per  cent 

3.0  per  cent   

2.9  per  cent 

2.8  per  cent 2 

2.7  per  cent 1 

Less  than  2.7  per  cent 0 


10. 


Points 
. .  ..'10 


Points 

8. 1  per  cent 4 

8.0  per  cent 3 

7.9  per  cent 2 

7.8  per  cent 1 

Less  than  7.8  per  cent 0 


8.7  per  cent,  and  over 

8.6  per  cent 9 

8.5  per  cent 8 

8.4  per  cent 7 

8.3  per  cent 6 

8.2  per  cent 5 

Note. — When  the  per  cent  of  solids  not  fat  is  less  than  the  local  legal  limit  the  score  shall  be  0. 

ACIDITY— PERFECT  SCORE,  5. 

Points    |  Points 

0.2  per  cent  and  less 5       0.23  per  cent 2 

0.21  per  cent 4       0.24  per  cent 1 

0.22  per  cent 3    I   Over  0.24  per  cent 0 

BOTTLE  AND  CAP— PERFECT  SCORE,  5. 
Bottles  should  be  made  of  clear  glass  and  free  from  attached  metal  parts.  Caps  should 
be  sealed  in  their  place  with  hot  paraffin,  or  both  cap  and  top  of  bottle  covered  with  parch- 
ment paper  or  other  protection  against  water  and  dirt.  Deduct  for  tinted  glass,  attached 
metal  parts,  unprotected  or  leaky  caps,  partially  filled  bottles,  or  other  conditions  permitting 
contamination  of  milk  or  detracting  from  the  appearance  of  the  package. 


388  MARKET  MILK 

the  ropy  condition  is  usually  accompanied  by  a  bitter  or  foul 
flavor. 

Bitter  milk  may  be  either  the  result  of  certain  bacteria  which 
grow  slowly  at  a  temperature  of  between  40  and  50  degrees, 
or  it  may  be  due  to  the  physical  condition  of  the  cow  yielding  it, 
in  which  case  the  bitter  taste  will  be  evident  the  moment  it  is 
drawn  from  the  udder.  This  condition  often  occurs  with  cows 
that  are  being  overfed  on  rich  protein  feeds. 


2- 


c3  *  £^o£ 


3. 

- 

%fc&0\ 

-c-v.-:^ 

.".. 

Fig.  125. — Photomicrographs  of  the  fat  globules  in  3  milks  to  show  comparative  sizes. 
1.  Grade  Jersey.    2.  Grade  Holstein.  3.  Human.  (Courtesy  Vermont  Experimental  Station.) 

All  that  has  been  said  or  intimated  with  regard  to  the  effects 
of  dirt  germs  in  the  baby's  milk  holds  just  as  true  respecting  the 
germs  that  gain  access  from  a  dirty  nursing  bottle  or  nipple  as 
from  the  dirty  tools  of  the  milkman.  Dairymen  are  often 
blamed  when  carelessness  in  the  consumer's  own  home  is  the 
source  of  the  trouble.  A  bottle  of  milk,  if  set  into  a  pail  of 
water  in  which  a  chunk  of  ice  is  kept  floating  and  the  whole 
set  into  the  refrigerator,  will  keep  sweet  two  or  three  times  as 
long  as  it  will  if  set  merely  in  the  cool  air  of  the  same  ice  chest. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 

THE  ADULTERATION  OF  MILK 

Because  milk  was  for  so  long  a  time  sold  by  the  measure, 
with  no  easy,  accurate  way  of  testing  for  quality,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  some  men  either  skimmed  or  watered  the  milk  they 
sold.  Of  all  forms  of  adulteration  these  two  are  most  common 
and  in  general  most  easily  detected. 

Chemical  analysis  of  the  milk  to  detect  adulterations  is  not 
necessary  since  it  has  been  discovered  that  the  specific  gravity 
(weight  per  volume)  of  milk  bears  a  definite  and  constant  rela- 
tion to  the  amount  of  solids  contained  in  it. 

The  Quevenne  lactometer,  which  is  the  chief  instrument 
used  in  the  detection  of  skimming  or  watering,  is  a  glass  tube 
filled  with  air,  weighted  to  float  in  milk,  and  graduated  to  indi- 
cate the  depth  to  which  it  sinks.  Since  any  floating  object  sinks 
until  it  displaces  exactly  its  weight  of  liquid  in  which  it  is 
floating,  the  lighter  or  thinner  the  milk,  the  deeper  the  instru- 
ment will  have  to  sink  to  balance. 

Influence  of  Temperature. — Water,  milk  and  most  other 
liquids  expand  and  become  thinner  or  less  dense  upon  becoming 
warm,  consequently,  the  milk  to  be  tested  must  be  brought  to 
a  fixed  temperature,  60  degrees  or  close  to  it.  For  every  degree 
in  temperature  above  60,  one-tenth  is  added  to  the  lactometer 
reading;  thus:  if  the  lactometer,  L  =  31.5,  at  temperature  64, 
the  corrected  reading  would  be  31.9,  and  likewise  for  every 
degree  below  60,  one-tenth  is  subtracted  from  the  lactometer 
reading,  thus  if  L  =  32.4  temperature  55,  the  correct  reading 
would  be  31.9.  This  rule  for  the  correction  does  not  hold  true 
above  70  degrees  nor  below  50  degrees,  and  preferably  should 
not  be  worked  above  65  degrees  nor  below  55  degrees.  The 
sample  should  be  brought  to  within  a  few  degrees  of  60  before 
it  is  tested. 

Influence  of  Air. — On  account  of  the  fine  bubbles  of  air  or 
other  gas  in  freshly  drawn  milk,  the  lactometer  cannot  be  ac- 

389 


390  THE  ADULTERATION  OF  MILK 

curately  used  at  once,  but  the  milk  should  be  held  for  about 
two  or  three  hours  to  permit  it  to  become  of  normal  weight  per 
volume. 

Influence  of  Preservatives. — To  keep  milk  test-samples  from 
souring  various  chemicals  are  added  to  kill  the  bacteria  and 
thereby  preserve  the  sample.  Corrosive  sublimate  or  mercuric 
chloride  is  such  heavy  stuff  that  a  single  small  tablet  in  one 
quart  of  milk  will  raise  the  lactometer  reading  higher  than 
possible  for  even  skim  milk.  A  preservative  such  as  formalde- 
hyde is  so  nearly  of  the  same  weight  as  milk  that  it  is  prefer- 
able where  specific  gravity  determinations  are  to  be  made. 

The  Use  of  the  Lactometer  (Fig.  125). — It  has  been  found 
that  the  quantity  of  solids-not-fat  is  very  nearly  one-fourth  the 
variable  portion  of  the  specific  gravity  figures.  For  example, 
the  specific  gravity  of  milk  at  60  degrees  varies  from  1.029 
with  a  naturally  watery  milk,  to  as  high  as  1.033  with  a  milk  of 
a  medium-testing  Jersey,  the  average  being  about  1.032.  It 
will  be  noted  that  the  1.0  portion  of  the  figures  is  constant, 
while  the  29-33  varies.  Milk  carries  from  8  to  8.6  per  cent 
solids-not-fat.  The  percentage  amount  of  the  non-fatty  portion 
of  milk  is  then  but  little  more  than  one-fourth  these  variable 
figures.  These  figures,  called  lactometer  reading,  increase, 
therefore,  four  times  as  rapidly  as  the  per  cent  of  non-fatty 
solids.  The  fat  in  the  milk  also  may  be  determined  almost 
wholly  by  physical  means,  the  Babcock  test,  rather  than  by  true 
chemical  anlysis. 

Since  fat  has  a  specific  gravity  of  0.90  and  skim  milk  or 
milk  serum  a  specific  gravity  of  1.036  it  follows  that  the  less 
fat  any  given  milk  contains  the  heavier  it  becomes,  and  vice 
versa.  Also  since  water  weighs  only  1.000  against  milk  1.032, 
it  follows  that  any  addition  of  water  to  milk  will  lower  its 
weight  or  specific  gravity.  Therefore,  by  combining  the  two, 
skim  milk  and  water,  it  is  possible  to  dilute  a  milk  and  still 
retain  its  natural  specific  gravity. 

For  this  reason  it  is  occasionally  necessary  to  combine  the 
use  of  fat  test  and  the  lactometer  in  order  to  detect  adultera- 
tion.    Thus,  if  the  lactometer  reading  is  higher  than  normal  and 


THE  USE  OF  THE  LACTOMETER 


391 


Fio    126  —The  lactometer  is  used  for  the  detection  of  skimming  and  watering  of  milk. 
At  temperature  60  degrees  F.  the  lactometer  will  read  about  31  or  it. 


392  THE  ADULTERATION  OF  MILK 

the  fat  test  is  lower  than  normal,  the  sample  has  been  skimmed ; 
while  if  the  lactometer  reading  is  low  and  the  fat  is  low  the 
sample  has  been  watered,  and  again  if  the  lactometer  reading  is 
normal  and  fat  is  low,  the  sample  has  been  both  skimmed  and 
watered.     Thus : 


Lactometer    low 
Fat  low 


watered 


Lactometer  high  \      skimmpd 
Fat  low)      sklmmed 

Lactometer  normal  j  =  skimmed  ^  ^^ 

The  total  food  solids  of  milk  may  also  be  determined  by  the 
use  of  the  lactometer  and  Babcock  test  by  the  application  of 
the  formula :  Lactometer  reading,  divided  by  4,  plus  two-tenths 
of  the  fat,  equals  solids-not-fat.     This  may  be  expressed  thus : 

-r-  +  0.2  f.  =  per  cent  solids-not-fat 
and 

—  +  1.2  f.  =  per  cent  total  solids 

Example :  If  L  =  31.9,  temperature  56,  corrected  L  =  31.5. 
Then  if  the  Babcock  test  for  the  sample  reads  3.8  per  cent  fat 
we  have:  ^  +  .2  X  3.-8  =  8.64  per  cent  solids-not-fat,  and 
8.64  +  3.8  =  12.44  per  cent  total  solids. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  a  lactometer? 

2.  What  influence  on  its  reading  has  temperature?    Air  and  preservatives? 

3.  What  preservative  is  most  desirable  when  lactometer  determinations  are 

to  be  made?     When  fat  only? 

4.  How  may  skimming  and  watering  be  detected? 

5.  How  may  the  lactometer  and  fat  test  be  used  to  determine  the  food  con 

tent  of  milk? 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 

KINDS  AND  CLASSES  OF  MARKET  MILK— METHODS  OF 
SELLING 

The  great  need  for  a  cleaner,  more  wholesome  milk  has 
focused  the  attention  of  many  physicians,  women's  clubs,  and 
dairymen  to  this  substance,  with  the  result  that  attempts  are 
now  being  made  in  various  ways,  not  only  to  produce  some 
milk  of  vastly  superior  quality,  but  also  to  improve  the  quality 
of  market  milk  in  general. 

The  principal  kinds  as  regards  treatment  or  preparation  are 
briefly  described  in  this  chapter. 

"  Loose "  milk,  so-called,  is  milk  peddled  about  town  in 
large  cans  from  which  the  quantity  desired  by  the  consumer  is 
dipped  or  drawn  as  needed.  This  term  is  used  to  distinguish 
it  from  bottled  milk.  Such  bulk  milk,  sometimes  called  "  dipped 
milk,"  may  be  just  as  clean  and  wholesome  as  any  other.  In 
smaller  cities  such  is  usually  the  case,  but  in  larger  centers  the 
fact  that  milk  can  be  sold  loose  somewhat  more  cheaply  than 
bottled  naturally  develops  a  cheap  milk  industry  in  some  quarter 
of  the  city.  The  inferior  grades  of  milk  are  more  likely  to  be 
turned  off  through  this  channel  and  if  adulterants  are  used  they 
are  almost  certain  to  be  in  such  districts. 

Bottled  milk  is  sold  in  bottles  (Fig.  126).  It  may  be 
just  as  unfit  as  any  other,  but  is  more  likely  to  have  been  pro- 
duced in  a  cleaner  manner  and  handled  to  preserve  quality, 
since  no  one  would  willingly  bestow  attention,  labor  and  the 
expense  of  bottling  upon  low-grade  milk. 

Clarified  milk  is  milk  which  has  been  purified  by  having 
been  passed  through  a  centrifugal  clarifier.  This  is  a  machine 
very  similar  to  an  ordinary  cream  separator  through  which 
milk  is  run  for  the  purpose  of  abstracting  from  it  the  fine 
particles  of  dust  which  pass  through  even  the  good  strainer, 
or  any  threads  or  clots  of  garget  or  blood,  or  any  other  foreign 
or  undesirable  matter.     They  are  very  effective  in  cleaning  the 

393 


394 


KINDS  AND  CLASSES  01  MARKET  MILK 


PASTEURIZED  MILK  395 

milk  and  do  not  injure  either  the  cream  line  or  the  condition  of 
the  fat  globules.  While,  of  course,  it  is  preferable  that  the 
milk  be  produced  and  handled  so  cleanly  that  no  such  treatment 
shall  be  needed,  it  is  a  fact,  nevertheless,  that  practically  all 
milk  would  be  benefited  more  or  less  by  the  use  of  such  a 
machine. 

Ordinary  cream  separators  have  often  been  used  for  this  pur- 
pose by  turning  the  cream  and  milk  spouts  to  discharge  into 
the  same  vessel,  but  though  the  "  slime  "  removed  is  consider- 
able, the  machine  devised  for  this  particular  purpose  is  more 
effective. 

Standardized  milk  is  milk  to  which  cream  or  skim  milk  has 
been  added  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  the  fat  content  of  the 
resultant  mixture  to  the  desired  or  required  standard.  Very 
often  standardizing  may  be  accomplished  by  merely  mixing 
together  the  milk  of  the  various  breeds  of  cows.  There  is 
nothing  ethically  wrong  with  standardization  and  it  should  not 
be  made  illegal  either  by  law  or  ruling.  It  is  now  practiced 
by  practically  all  the  larger  city  dairy  companies.  Those  desir- 
ing to  standardize  the  milk  of  a  single  herd  may  find  the  method 
explained  in  Chapter  XXIX  helpful. 

Pasteurized  milk  is  that  which  has  been  heated  for  the  pur- 
pose of  destroying  whatever  bacteria  there  are  present  in  it. 

Flash  System-. — When  first  introduced  this  system  involved 
the  heating  of  the  milk  to  a  temperature  of  about  1G6  degrees  F., 
at  which  temperature  it  was  held  for  a  mere  fraction  of  a 
minute,  when  it  was  immediately  cooled  to  a  temperature  of 
about  40  degrees.  Various  machines  were  developed  for  the 
purpose  of  treating  milk  thus,  despite  the  fact  that  the  process 
was  frowned  upon  by  most  physicians  and  public  health  workers. 
The  milk  itself,  furthermore,  was  often  not  agreeable  to  the 
consumer,  since  the  high  temperature  caused  a  slight  carameliza- 
tion  of  the  milk  sugar,  thus  changing  the  flavor  slightly  towards 
that  of  evaporated  milk  or  boiled  milk.  The  cream,  too,  did 
not  rise  quite  as  readily  on  such  milk,  thus  causing  many  to  feel 
that  an  insufficient  amount  of  fat  was  present. 


396  KINDS  AND  CLASSES  OF  MARKET  MILK 

The  Held  System. — The  new  process  of  pasteurizing  is  to 
heat  the  milk  to  a  temperature  of  about  145  degrees;  to  hold  it 
at  this  temperature  for  about  twenty-five  minutes  and  then  to 
cool  quickly  to  about  40  degrees.  By  this  means  the  cream  line 
is  not  injured,  the  flavor  is  not  changed  and  the  bacteria  are 
even  more  thoroughly  destroyed  than  by  the  former  system. 
This  latter  method  is  the  one  most  largely  employed  at  the 
present  time. 

The  Bottle  System. — A  third  method  is  to  first  bottle  and 
cap  the  milk  and  then  to  immerse  the  bottles  in  warm  water, 
then  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  tank  of  water  to  145 
degrees  for  fifty  minutes  to  heat  the  milk.  This  method  is 
better  adapted  to  small  dairies.     It  is  not  yet  in  general  use. 

Pasteurization  of  milk  is  no  longer  forbidden  by  health 
boards  as  was  often  the  case  a  few  years  ago.  On  the  contrary, 
practically  all  physicians  now  recommend  it  and  many  cities 
are  compelling  that  milk  shall  have  been  pasteurized  or  shall 
have  been  produced  by  tested  cows  under  inspected  conditions 
before  such  milk  shall  be  allowed  to  be  sold  within  said  city. 
Pasteurization,  properly  done,  unquestionably  improves  the 
quality  of  the  milk  as  it  ordinarily  comes  to  market  and  does 
not  impair  its  nutritive  properties  in  any  way. 

Sanitary  milk  is  that  produced  by  cows  which  have  been 
examined  and  found  free  from  tuberculosis  and  other  disease 
and  under  conditions  of  cleanliness  such  as  to  insure  a  product 
containing  not  to  exceed  100,000  bacteria  per  cubic  centimeter. 
Such  milk  is  considerably  cleaner  than  the  ordinary  market 
milk  before  clarifying  and  pasteurization,  but  may  be  con- 
siderably inferior  to  certified  milk.  It,  however,  is  less  ex- 
pensive to  produce  and  may  be  sold  at  a  lower  figure.  This 
milk  is  usually  sold  raw,  i.e.,  without  being  pasteurized. 

Certified  milk  is  milk  the  cleanliness  of  which  has  been 
certified  to  by  the  local  health  board  or  certification  committee 
of  physicians.  Such  milk  must  have  been  produced  from  cows 
tested  and  found  free  from  disease  and  produced  under  con- 
ditions of  stable  and  milkers,  such  as  to  insure  the  presence  of 
not  to  exceed  10,000  bacteria  per  cubic  centimeter  at  the  time 
of  delivery  to  the  consumer. 


HOMOGENIZED  MILK  397 

The  production  of  certified  milk  involves  identically  the  same 
factors  as  mentioned  in  the  production  of  clean  milk,  with  the 
exception  that  each  point  is  carried  to  a  greater  degree ;  thus  the 
cows  must  be  a  little  cleaner,  the  stable  atmosphere  a  little  freer 
of  dust,  the  milkers'  hands  cleansed  before  the  milking  of  each 
cow,  all  pails  and  cans  thoroughly  sterilized  and  the  milk  cooled 
at  once  to  50  degrees  or  below. 

In  the  past  an  immense  amount  of  unnecessary  expense  has 
been  incurred  in  the  production  of  certified  milk.  Millionaires 
of  good  intentions  have  lavished  their  wealth  upon  cow  stables 
and  bottling  outfits  with  the  result  that  there  was  no  profit  in 
the  industry  when  the  interest  on  the  money  invested  was 
taken  into  account.  Often,  too,  the  cooling  and  bottling  ma- 
chines were  so  elaborate  as  to  be  difficult  of  cleaning.  This 
naturally  resulted  in  the  production  of  an  article  considerably 
inferior  to  that  which  could  be  produced  by  means  of  a  simple 
and  less  expensive  outfit.  It  is  gratifying  to  note  that  there 
is  now  a  tendency  away  from  the  unnecessary  dairy  refinements 
with  a  more  tenacious  clinging  to  the  points  essential  in  clean 
milk  production.  In  Chapter  XXVI  are  given  the  chief  rules 
and  regulations  laid  down  for  the  production  of  certified  milk. 

Homogenized  milk  is  milk  rendered  homogeneous,  or  uni- 
form, throughout.  Homogenization  of  milk  involves  not  only 
the  pulverization  of  the  fat  globules,  as  originally  thought,  but 
also  the  breaking  up  of  the  casein  shreds  as  well.  The  process 
may,  and  usually  does,  also  involve  pasteurization,  since  milk 
may  be  more  readily  and  rapidly  homogenized  at  a  compara- 
tively high  temperature.  The  homogenizer  is  a  machine  con- 
sisting essentially  of  three  or  more  pumps  which  force  the  milk 
through  a  small  aperture  against  a  hard  surface  under  a  pressure 
of  from  two  to  five  thousand  pounds  per  square  inch.  In  prac- 
tice homogenization  is  now  employed  most  largely  by  ice  cream 
manufacturers  and  the  pressure  and  temperature  employed  vary 
with  the  use  to  which  the  cream  or  milk  is  to  be  put.  Unsalted 
butter  and  skim  milk  may  easily,  by  the  aid  of  this  machine,  be 
emulsified  into  a  milk  or  cream  of  any  desired  fat  percentage. 
Thus  it  may  be  employed  in  cream  and  ice  cream  making  in  the 
winter  season  when  fresh  cream  is  scarce  and  high  priced. 


398 


KINDS  AND  CLASSES  OF  MARKET  MILK 


HOMOGENIZED  MILK  399 

Homogenized  milk  for  infant  feeding  has  been  advocated  for 
several  years  and  though  possessing  a  little  merit,  its  value  has 
been  greatly  over-estimated.  The  size  of  the  fat  globule, 
thought  to  be  important,  has  been  shown  to  be  an  exceedingly 
small  factor  compared  with  the  percentage  amount  of  fat  in 
the  milk  fed  and  its  proportion  to  other  solids.  It  is  exceed- 
ingly more  important  that  the  milk  shall  be  medium  to  low  in 
fat  than  that  the  globules  of  fat  be  small  in  size.  Homogenized 
milk  produces  a  fine  flocculent  curd,  one  which  never  clots  into 
the  hard  rubbery  mass  characteristic  of  normal  milk.  This  pro- 
duction of  a  friable  curd  is  thought  to  be  of  more  importance  in 
the  digestion  of  the  milk  by  the  infant  than  the  small  size  of 
the  fat  globule.  If,  together  with  the  breaking  up  of  the  fat 
and  the  casein  in  milk,  it  has  also  been  thoroughly  pasteurized 
and  also  kept  low  in  fat  percentage,  then  homogenized  milk  is 
of  definite  value  in  the  feeding  of  delicate  bottle-fed  infants. 

METHODS  OF  SELLING  MILK 

A  milk  rich  in  food  solids  is  worth  more  per  quart  than  that 
which  is  poor ;  likewise,  milk  which  is  clean  is  worth  more  than 
dirty  milk.  In  winter,  milk  is  generally  less  abundant  and 
therefore  higher  in  price.  How  to  arrange  sales  from  producer 
to  distributer  with  three  varying  elements  and  yet  not  make  the 
affair  too  complicated  to  be  workable  has  long  been  a  problem. 
Milk  is  now  being  purchased  on  no  less  than  fourteen  bases, 
ranging  all  the  way  from  so  much  per  "  can,"  irrespective  of 
fat  and  bacteria  content,  to  a  plan  involving  three  sliding  scales, 
one  for  cleanliness,  one  for  fat  content,  and  one  for  time  of  the 
year.  All  three  are  just  reasons  for  modifying  the  price,  yet 
they  combine  to  make  great  complexity,  which  in  turn  makes 
for  suspicion  and  dissatisfaction. 

The  best  plan,  theoretically  at  least,  is  that  now  being  tried 
by  the  Borden  Milk  Company,  New  York  City.  For  any  given 
month  the  price  is  fixed,  based  on  Grade  B  milk  (see  Chapter 
XXV)  at  say  $1.75  per  hundred  for  milk  testing  3.5  per 
cent  fat;  then  for  every  tenth  of  a  per  cent  increase  in  fat 


400  KINDS  AND  CLASSES  OF  MARKET  MILK 

over  3.5,  three  cents  extra  are  paid,  and  for  every  tenth  below 
three  cents  are  deducted,  thus  a  5.0  per  cent  milk  would  bring 
$2.20  and  a  3.0  per  cent  milk  would  be  worth  $1.60.  In  addi- 
tion five  cents  extra  per  hundred  is  paid  for  Grade  A  milk  and 
a  like  amount  subtracted  if  the  milk  falls  into  the  Grade  C 
class.  Thus,  100  pounds  of  5  per  cent  Grade  A  would  be 
worth  $2.25,  while  100  pounds  of  3.0  per  cent  Grade  C  would 
bring  only  $1.55.  A  different  price  standard  for  each  month 
in  the  year  may  then  be  announced  in  advance  with  a  table 
indicating  just  what  any  particular  class  and  grade  will  be 
worth. 

There  is  a  strong  tendency  throughout  the  middle  west  to 
buy  on  the  fat  test  solely,  to  buy,  as  it  were,  the  fat  in  the  form 
of  milk. 

The  breeders  of  Jersey  and  Guernsey  cattle  will  welcome 
any  system  that  pays  for  quality. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  meant  by  market  milk? 

2.  What  per  cent  of  the  total  amount  of  milk  produced  is  used  as  butter, 

as  cheese,  as  milk  and  cream? 

3.  How  many  babies  are  there  in  the  United  States  under  one  year  of  age? 

4.  What  per  cent  and  number  are  bottle  fed? 

5.  About  what  is  the  proportion  of  infant  mortality  between  the  breast  fed 

and    the   cow's    milk    fed? 

6.  What  three  classes  of  factors  influence  the  quality  of  cow's  milk? 

7.  How  is  milk  scored? 

8.  What  is  meant  by  "loose"  milk? 

it.  Why  is  bottled  milk  more  likely  to  be  good  than  loose  milk  in  cities? 

10.  What  is  clarified  milk? 

11.  What  is  standardized  milk? 

12.  What   is  pasteurization?     Explain   the  three   systems? 

13.  What   is   "sanitary"   milk? 

14.  What   is  certified  milk?     How  is  it  produced? 

15.  What  is  homogenized  milk? 

16.  Describe  the  method  of  selling  milk  in  vogue  in  any  city  with  which  you 

are   familiar. 

17.  Describe  the  Borden  Milk  Company's  plan. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX 
THE  FOOD  VALUES  OF  MILK 

This  chapter  on  milk  will,  of  necessity,  be  very  brief.  A 
book  the  size  of  this  whole  volume  could  readily  be  written  on 
milk  and  its  use. 

Science  confirms  history  and  everv-day  observation,  that 


Before  and  After 

Fig.  129. — These  pictures  are  of  the  same  pair  of  boys— before  and  after  drinking  freely  of 

milk  and  playing  the  game  of  health  for  about  ten  weeks. 

races  or  peoples  who  eat  freely  of  milk,  eggs  and  meat,  especially 
of  milk,  grow  larger,  both  physically  and  mentally,  than  those 
who  are  deprived  of  this  class  of  foods.  The  physical,  intellect- 
ual and  moral  leadership  of  the  world  today  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
26  401 


402  THE  FOOD  VALUES  OF  MILK 

northern  races,  where  dairying  is  common ;  yet  we  find  that  ap- 
proximately one-third  of  all  the  school  children  of  America  are 
now  under  weight  and  backward  in  school,  and,  not  infrequently 
too,  perverse  in  disposition ;  all  of  which  conditions  may,  to  the 
extent  of  97  per  cent,  be  cured  by  the  liberal  use  of  milk.  The 
physical  condition  and  mental  status  of  all  the  children  in  the 
eighth  grade  in  one  of  America's  largest  cities  were  recently 
studied,  and  it  was  found  that  those  children  who  had  been  ac- 
customed to  drinking  milk  averaged  two  years  younger  than 
the  group  in  the  same  grade  who  were  being  deprived  of  milk 
during  their  growing  years.  Manifestly,  then,  it  would  be 
good  business  on  the  part  of  the  governing  boards  of  our  city 
schools  to  see  to  it  that  the  children  receive  a  glass  of  milk  morn- 
ing and  afternoon,  in  order  that  they  may  be  sufficently  strong 
to  make  their  grades  rapidly.  The  children  of  the  rich  as  well  as 
of  the  poor,  and  of  the  country  even  more  than  of  the  city,  are 
handicapped  by  faulty  nutrition  and  milk  will  correct  ninety- 
seven  per  cent  of  these  ills.  Truly,  if  modern  science  had 
discovered  a  new  substance  (as  radium  for  cancer)  which  con- 
tained all  the  elements  for  physical  growth  and  health,  and 
the  actual  cure  of  many  specific  ills,  and  also  caused  weak  child- 
ren to  gain  or  regain  mental  stamina  and  place  in  school,  if  this 
were  a  new  substance  and  were  made  as  available  and  as  inex- 
pensive as  milk  is,  the  newspapers,  the  medical  journals,  and  the 
health  magazines  of  the  world  would  herald  it  and  urge  its  use, 
and  societies  would  be  formed  to  see  that  no  family  went  without 
it.     What  is  milk  that  these  things  are  true  ? 

WHAT   IS    MILK  ? 

Milk  is  a  complex  mixture  of  compounds,  each  class  or  group 
of  which  serves  its  particular  purpose  in  the  building  of  the 
animal  body.  The  chart,  Fig.  130,  indicates  roughly  the  com- 
position of  average  cow's  milk,  the  nutritive  uses  that  each 
food  class  serves,  and  approximately  the  length  of  time  required 
for  the  normal  body  to  digest  and  derive  benefit  from  it. 

How  thoughtful  of  old  Mother  Nature  to  arrange  easily 
digested  food    (sugar  and  albumin)   for  the  tired  infant  and 


THE  FOOD  VALUES  OF  MILK  403 

stronger  compounds  (fat  and  casein)  to  do  the  major  portion  of 
the  work  of  growing.  Growing  bodies  need  just  what  milk  has 
to  offer  them;  viz.:  minerals,  protein,  energy  and  vitamines. 

MINERALS 

Minerals  are  the  substances  which  (a)  prevent  an  acid  con- 
dition of  the  body  and  thereby  allow  normal  functioning  of 
organs,  and  (b)  build  the  hard  part  of  bones  and  teeth.     The 

THE  COMPOSITION  AND  DIGESTION 

AVERAGE  MILK 


WATIR    87.17**        SOLIDS     12.83% 
' v^ 


*-  SUGAR         4.88^  QUICK  MILD  FOOD 

-DIGESTED   IM 

FURNISH  ^        BUILDS    i   f  ALBUMIN      0.55  '      20   MINUTES 
ENER6Y     .•-      BLOOD       - 

AND  HEAtJ  I     MUSCLEJ  I  CASEIN          3.00^   SLOW  POWERFUL 

>F00D  DIGESTED 
^FAT  3.«tJ  IN  3   HOURS 


i 


0.71%  ASH 
BUILDS     TEETH 


STARCH  EQUIVALENT     16.43  LBS.  TOTAL   ENERGY  VALUE, 

NUTRITIVE   RATIO  1.3.7  29.800  CALORIES  PER  CWT. 

NUTRIMENT  PER  QT.  %  LB.  C7S  CALORIES  PER   QT. 

Fig.  130. — Chart  shows  the  composition  and  digestion  of  average  milk. 


growing  child  requires  about  one  gram  of  lime  per  day.  Meat, 
eggs,  potatoes.,  white  bread,  corn  bread,  butter,  sugar  and  most 
breakfast  foods  are  extremely  lacking  in  lime.  They  are  good 
foods  but  not  balanced,  therefore,  making  a  balancer  all  the  more 
urgent.  The  lime  or  mineral  matter  of  meat  is  in  the  bone 
which  we  throw  away.  The  lime  of  egg  is  in  the  shell,  which 
again  is  not  used,  but  the  lime  of  milk  is  in  solution  in  the 
milk,  so  is  drunk  without  our  even  knowing  it.  Of  all  the 
foods  used  in  America,  milk  is  the  richest  in  bone  and  teeth 
building  substance. 

Ten   cents  will   buy   the   following   amounts    of   lime   in 
common  foods: 


404  THE  FO0D  VALUES  OF  MILK 

Grams 
of  Lime 

In  skim  milk  at  5  cents  a  quart  3.472 

In  milk  at  10  cents  a  quart 1.636 

In  milk  at  15  cents  a  quart  1.090 

In  milk  at  20  cents  a  quart   0.810 

In  cheese  at  25  cents  a  pound 1.990 

In  eggs  at  35  cents  a  dozen   0.149 

In  eggs  at  55  cents  a  dozen   0.096 

In  round  steak  at  26  cents  a  pound 0.019 

In  dried  lima  beans  at  10  cents  a  pound 0.450 

In  white  bread  at  6  cents  a   loaf    0.198 

In  whole  wheat  bread  at  12  cents  a  loaf 0.226 

In  cornmeal  at  4  cents  a  pound 0.170 

In  oatmeal  at  5  cents  a  pound      1.179 


PROTEINS 

Protein  is  the  general  term  applied  to  that  large  class  of 
food  stuffs  which  contains  nitrogen  and  usually  sulphur  in  addi- 
tion to  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  and  which  by  the  ani- 
mal is  used  to  form  the  muscles  of  the  body  and  to  constitute 
about  84  per  cent  of  the  solid  substances  of  the  blood.  Meat, 
eggs,  cheese,  beans  and  peas  are  rich  in  protein.  Cottage 
cheese  is  almost,  pure  protein,  made  soft  by  water. 

To  Supply  Protein 


Is  as  cheap  as 
Sirloin  Stea'k 


Milk  at  sMi^raA8*  Or  Eggs  at 


10  cents  a  quart  23.3  cents  a  pound  25.1  cents  a  dozen 

12  cents  a  quart  27.9  cents  a  pound  30.2  cents  a  dozen 

15  cents  a  quart  34.9  cents  a  pound  37.7  cents  a  dozen 

20  cents  a  quart  46.6  cents  a  pound  50.2  cents  a  dozen 


Energy  in  engineering  is  measured  in  B.T.U.  (British  Ther- 
mal Unit)  but  in  nutritional  matters  energy  is  measured  in 
Calories.  One  Calorie  is  equal  to  3.96  B.T.U.  An  average  man 
at  average  work  requires  about  3000  Calories  per  day  for 
maintenance.  An  infant  requires  about  45  Calories  per  pound 
of  weight  per  day.     Therefore,  one  weighing  10  pounds  needs 


THE  FOOD  VALUES  OF  MILK  405 

about  450  Calories  per  24  hours.     Milk  fat,  like  other  fats,  is 

rich  in  heat  units,  containing'  about  2.25  times  as  much  as  a 

similar  weight  of  sugar  or  starch.     One  quart  of  milk  contains 

about  675  Calories. 

To  Supply  Energy  at  Equal  Cost 

„ru       w,    ,    •.».,,    .  Sirloin  Steak  must  And  Eggs  not 

When  Whole  Milk  ib  not  exceed  more  than 

10  cents  a  quart  14.2  cents  a  pound  13.2  cents  a  dozen 

12  cents  a  quart  17.0  cents  a  pound  15.9  cents  a  dozen 

15  cents  a  quart  21. .3  cents  a  pound  19-8  cents  a  dozen 

20  cents  a  quart  28.4  cents  a  pound  26.4  cents  a  dozen 

VITAMINES 

Vitamine  is  the  general  name  applied  to  three  or  more 
recently  proven  substances  which  are  manufactured  by  growing 
plants,  but  which  are  absolutely  essential  to  animal  life.  These 
substances  (Vitamines)  are  present  in  green  leaves,  growing 
buds,  the  germ  of  seeds,  and  to  a  slight  extent  in  the  outer 
coating  of  seeds,  like  bran,  but  are  wanting  in  the  "Purified," 
starchy  parts  of  seeds.  White  flour  from  any  cereal  is  weak  in 
all  Vitamines.  They  are  also  practically  absent  from  the  edible 
portion  of  potatoes  and  all  common  root  crops  of  the  garden. 
Animals  eating  grass  get  the  Vitamines,  use  some  of  them  daily 
for  their  own  growth  or  for  depositing  in  eggs  or  milk  and  store 
other  amounts  in  the  liver  and  other  glands  of  the  body.  Very 
little,  indeed,  is  stored  in  the  muscular  tissues.  Rich,  indeed, 
however,  are  milk  and  eggs,  since  these  were  designed  by  nature 
to  be  food  for  young,  growing  animals.  Vitamine  A  is  that 
which  stimulates  growth  and  general  development  of  the  body, 
and  is  found  in  butter,  the  fat  of  eggs,  and  very  slightly  in  body 
fats.  Vitamine  B,  the  one  which  prevents  beri-beri,  a  nervous 
weakness,  is  in  the  watery  portion  of  milk  and  eggs  and  vege- 
tables. The  third  Vitamine,  known  as  "C"  or  anti-scorbutic, 
is  also  present  in  the  watery  portions  of  milk,  eggs,  plant  juices, 
particularly  in  growing  buds,  and  leafy  portions  of  vegetables, 
like  spinach,  also  oranges,  lemons,  tomatoes,  and  rhubarb. 

Vitamines  may  be  compared  in  nature  to  electricity.  We 
cannot  weigh,  nor  see  it,  but  we  know  what  it  is,  where  to  obtain 
it  and  how  to  use  it. 


406 


THE  FOOD  VALUES  OF  MILK 


It  will  be  noted  that  milk  contains  ash  for  the  building  of 
the  frame  of  the  body,  proteins  for  the  building  of  the  muscle, 
energy  for  the  running  of  the  machine,  and  vitamines  of  all 
three  kinds  to  keep  the  body  well. 


INFANTS    VS.    ADULTS 


The  food  required  by  infants  differs  from  that  needed  by 
adults,  only  in  two  ways,  viz.:  (1)  In  the  delicate  condition  or 


compos/  r/0A/  or  the  sol /as  ofm/lk  orvAffr/NQ  rAT  GftAoe 


any  ma  TTtn    basis 

*ath>  mv  r»  non'-fMTTr  lotto*. 


rAr   tr.tr 


r/tcrewMM. 


PtKClMT  fXT      so 


Fig.  131. — Emphasizing  the  change  of  the  proportion  of  fat  to  non-fatty  solids  in  the 
solid  matter  of  milk  of  varying  fat  grades;  also  that  2.43  pounds  of  low-priced  solids 
accompanied  each  one  pound  of  fat  in  the  3.0  per  cent  milk,  whereas,  only  1.29  pounds  of 
cheap  solids  were  required  to  be  produced  to  accompany  each  pound  of  fat  with  a  7  per 
cent  milk. 

nature  of  the  food,  and  (2)  the  ratio  of  nutrients>,  or  the  pro- 
portion of  ash,  protein,  and  energy  required  for  growth,  rather 
than  the  amounts  needed  for  maintenance  of  a  mature  body,  and 
for  work.  Moreover  it  has  been  shown  by  repeated  tests  that  the 
chemical  composition  of  a  food  consumed  by  small,  growing 
animals  determines  the  composition  of  the  body  produced  by  it. 
In  the  author's  experiments  the  ratio  or  proportion  of  muscle  to 


THE  FOOD  VALUES  OP  MILK  407 

fat  in  the  finished  body  bore  a  constant  relation  to  the  ratio  of  pro- 
teins to  fat,  or  fat  forming  compounds  in  the  material  consumed. 
Milk  varies  in  composition,  not  alone  in  fat  but  in  every 
other  component.  The  natural  milk  containing  the  lowest  per 
cent  of  fat,  has  also  the  lowest  amount  of  fat  in  proportion  to 
the  other  solid  food  substances  in  the  milk.  Such  milk  also  has 
the  highest  percentage  amount  of  ash  in  the  solid  food  matter, 
while  the  richest  milk,  not  only  has  the  largest  amount  of  fat 
in  the  liquid  milk,  but  the  largest  proportion  of  fat  to  total 
solids  in  the  solid  food  substances  of  the  milk.  For  instance,  a 
3  per  cent  fat  milk  has  6*/o  per  cent  ash  in  the  solids,  while  a 
6  per  cent  milk  has  only  4%  per  cent  ash  in  the  solids.  A  3  per 
cent  milk  has  only  27  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  solids,  while  the 
solid  matter  of  a  6  per  cent  milk  is  nearly  39.0  per  cent  fat. 
Skim  milk  and  buttermilk  are  essentially  liquid  lean  meat. 

Percentage  Composition  of  Water- free  Substance  in  Milk  of  Varying 
Fat  Content 


Grade  of 

Milk  Per 

cent. 

Butter 

Fat  Per 

cent. 

Protein 
Per 
cent. 

Carbo- 
hydrates 
Per  cent. 

Ash 
Per 
cent. 

3.0   Fat 

27.27 

24.36 

41.83 

6.54 

3.5   Fat 

29.76 

23.89 

40.40 

5.95 

4.0  Fat 

31.70 

24.40 

38.45 

5.46 

4.5   Fat 

33.41 

24.28 

36.89 

5.42 

5.0   Fat 

35.28 

24.35 

35.22 

5.15 

5.5   Fat 

37.16 

24.66 

31.75 

4.78 

6.0   Fat 

38.78 

24.09 

31.75 

4.78 

6.5   Fat 

39.95 

25.32 

30.12 

4.61 

7.0   Fat 

41.62 

25.09 

28.78 

4.51 

This  relation  is  better  illustrated  by  Fig.  131.  There  is 
danger  in  the  nation-wide  habit  of  feeding  young,  growing  child- 
ren "top  milk."  This  is  simply  thin  cream  and  is  desperately 
lacking  in  bone  and  muscle  building  substances  and  is  too  rich 
in  the  heating  and  adipose  forming  elements.  The  relation 
between  food  and  bodily  condition  is  best  illustrated  by  the 
following  summary  of  tests  made  by  the  author  in  the  University 
of  Vermont,  and  reported  in  Bulletin  195. 


408 


THE  FOOD  VALUES  OF  MILK 


Milk  is  consumed  by  adults  in  very  moderate  or  small  quan- 
tities, and  that  along  with  much  other  material,  and  is  therefore 
most  valuable  when  it  contains  the  most  food  units..  For  instance, 
average  Jersey  and  Guernsey  milk  is  rich,  not  only  in  fat,  but  in 
other  solid  food  substances  and  to  adults  is  worth  about  40  per 
cent  more  per   quart  than   the  average  city   milk   dispensed 


Effect  of  Corn-position  of  Food  Upon  the  Character  of  Body  Gain. 


Ratio  of 

Condition 

Kind  of  Food. 

Per  cent 

Nutritive 

Muscle  to 

of  the 

Number 

Fat. 

Ratio  =1: 

Fat=l: 

Animals. 

in  Average. 

Rough 
Hard 

Skim  milk . . . 

.04 

1.28 

.86 

16 

Active 

Smooth 

Medium  milk . . . 

2.67 

2.90 

1.61 

Firm 

Active 

Soft 

27 

Rich  milk 

4.72 

4.27 

2.52 

Sluggish 
Tender 

15 

throughout  America.  The  infant,  however,  derives  all  his 
food  from  milk  and  therefore  that  milk  is,  most  valuable  to  the 
infant  which  will  produce  the  strongest  body  and  this  is  not  the 
rich  milk  but  rather  that  of  about  2!/o  to  3^  per  cent  fat  and 
comparatively  rich  in  minerals  and  protein  and  vitamine,  i.  e., 
Holstein  or  Ayrshire  milk. 


COST  OF  DAIRY  FOODS 

Contrary  to  general  notion,  food  in  the  form  of  milk  is  not 
particularly  expensive  when  compared  to*  any  of  the  meats,  fish 
or  fowl,  green  vegetablesi  or  fruits.  This  is  illustrated  in  the 
following  table,  worked  out  to  show  the  cost  per  pound  of  the 
solid  food  ingredients  in  various  common  food  stuffs,  after  the 
natural  waste  and  water  of  these  have  been  figured  out. 

A  better  view  of  this  matter,  however,  can  be  obtained  by  a 
study  of  the  graph  (Fig.  132,  page  410). 


THE  FOOD  VALUES  OF  MILK  409 

The  cost  And  in  comparison 

When  Retails  at  per  lb.  Edible  Milk  is  worth  per  qt. 

Solids  is  Canadian  U.S. 

Round   Steak    0.25  lb.  0.81  0.25  0.20 

Hamburger    0.25  lb.  0.75  0.24  0.19 

Eggs     0.30  doz.  0.85  0.26  0.21 

Eggs     0.45  doz.  1.27  6.40  0.38 

Broiler  Chicken 0.25  lb.  1.70  0.48  0.38 

Broiler  Chicken   0.35  lb.  2.38  0.66  0.53 

Fat  Fowl 0.20  lb.  0.80  0.25  0.20 

Fat   Fowl    0.30  lb.  1.20  0.38  0.31 

Fat   Turkey    0.25  lb.  0.75  0.24  0.19 

White  Fish   0.20  lb.  1.44  0.44  0.35 

Oysters,  solidsl 0.60  qt.  3.00  0.91  0.73 

Average  Milk   0.12  qt.  0.48  0.12  0.12 

Average   Milk    0.15  qt.  0.60  0.15  0.15 

Average  Milk   0.20  qt.  0.80  0.20  0.20 

Ham   0.40  lb.  1.04  0.34  0.27 

Ham     0.50  lb.  0.78  0.24  0.19 

Cheese    0.40  1b.  0.60  0.19  0.15 

Cheese    0.30  lb.  0.48  0.15  0.12 

Condensed  or  evaporated  milk  is  simply  cow's  milk  re^- 
duced  to  about  one^half  original  volume  by  driving  off  enough 
of  the  water  to  reduce  it  from  88  per  cent  in  natural  milk  to  72 
per  cent  in  the  commercial  evaporated  milk.  This,  increases 
the  solid  food  matter  from  about  12  to  26  per  cent.  When  not 
sweetened  for  preservation,  it  is  a  fairly  good  food  for  infants 
and  young  children  if  they  like  it.  Sweetened  condensed  milk, 
however,  is  too  rich  in  the  fattening  qualities  to  make  a  safe 
food  for  continued  use  for  infants. 

Powdered  milk  is,  simply  cow's  milk  with  practically  all 
the  water  taken  out.  Ordinary  milk  is  about  88  per  cent  water, 
while  powdered  milk  contains  2  to  3  per  cent — a  wholly  neglig- 
ible amount.  A  system  is  now  in  use  by  which  milk  containing 
all  of  the  natural  cream  can  be  powdered  and  remain  sweet  and 
wholesome  for  a  long  time,  long  enough,  in  fact,  to  be  shipped 
half  way  round  the  world  and  used  with  perfect  satisfaction. 

Extensive  feeding  tests  covering  the  past  15  years  in  Eng- 
land and  in  Continental  Europe  demonstrate  that  powdered 
milk  is  even  superior  to  natural  liquid  milk  in  the  feeding  of 


410 


THE  FOOD  VALUES  OF  MILK 


infants.     It  is  purer  from  the  standpoint  of  bacteria  and  does 
not  form  a  hard,  tough  curd  in  the  infant's  stomach. 

The  dairy  cow  is  the  greatest  stabilizer  of  agriculture  (see 


COST  OK  1  LB.  Of  ACTUAL  FOOD 

IN  ANIMAL 

PRODUCTS 

|    ISO 

j 

1 

1 

1        1 

1 

LZ5  ■ 

I       1 

,    1 

J  - 

-II 

1 

1  1  I  1  j_ 

SKIM 

MILK 

QT. 

3.25  r. 

MII.K 
QT. 

HAM- 
BURGER 

La 

TORTT.K 
LB. 

EGOS 
454 

(W5TCR5     WHITE         I'VI'           n.V.I       AMERICAS 

fish       rowa                   CHEESt 

.^CK      i       iO                                                     O 
QT.      j       l.!\.   '         LB.              1  B              LIV 

COTTAGE 
CHEESE, 

ia* 

Fig.  132. — These  bars  are  drawn  to  scale  to  indicate  the  comparative  cost  of  one  pound  of 
food  at  the  prices  indicated. 

Part  I)  and  milk  is  the  greatest  corrective  for  faulty  diets  in 
the  world. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  meant  by  the  "starch  value"  of  milk? 

2.  Discuss  milk  vitamines. 

3.  How  much  do  various  natural  milks  vary  in  total  food  value? 

4.  What  milk  is  most  valuable  to  the  adult? 

5.  How  does  the  cost  per  pound  of  edible  solid  matter  in  milk  compare 

with   meats,   eggs   and   oysters? 

6.  In  comparison  what  is  milk  worth  per  quart? 

7.  What  milk  is  best  suited  to  the  needs  of  a  growing  infant  and  young  child  ? 

8.  How  did  medium  and  rich  milks  compare  in  effect  on  infant  pigs  in  a 

Vermont  test? 

9.  What  is  the  experience  of  stockmen  with  regard  to  grade  of  milk  best 

suited  to  calf  feeding? 
10.  To  what  age  should  children  drink  milk?     Why? 


CHAPTER    XL 

GOVERNMENT  STANDARDS  OF  PURITY  FOR  MILK 
AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 

A.    MILKS  I 

1.  Milk  is  the  fresh,  clean,  lacteal  secretion  obtained  by  the 
complete  milking  of  one  or  more  healthy  cows,  properly  fed  and 
kept,  excluding  that  obtained  within  fifteen  days  before  and  ten 
days  after  calving,  and  contains  not  less  than  eight  and  one- 
half  (8.5)  per  cent  of  solids  not  fat,  and  not  less  than  three 
and  one-quarter  (3.25)  per  cent  of  milk  fat. 

2.  Blended  milk  is  milk  modified  in  its  composition  so  as  to 
have  a  definite  and  stated  percentage  of  one  or  more  of  its 
constituents. 

3.  Skim  milk  is  milk  from  which  a  part  or  all  of  the  cream 
has  been  removed  and  contains  not  less  than  nine  and  one-quar- 
ter ('9.25)  per  cent  of  milk  solids. 

4.  Pasteurized  milk  is  milk  that  has  been  heated  below  boil- 
ing but  sufficiently  to  kill  most  of  the  active  organisms  present 
and  immediately  cooled  to  50  degrees  F.  or  lower. 

5.  Sterilized  milk  is  milk  that  has  been  heated  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  boiling  water  or  higher  for  a  length  of  time  sufficient 
to  kill  all  organisms  present. 

6.  Condensed  milk,  evaporated  milk,  is  milk  from  which  a 
considerable  portion  of  water  has  been  evaporated  and  contains 
not  less  than  twenty-eight  (28)  per  cent  of  milk  solids,  of  which 
not  less  than  twenty-seven  and  five-tenths  (27.5)  per  cent  is 
fat.     Condensed  milks  must,  then,  contain  7.7  per  cent  of  fat. 

7.  Sweetened  condensed  milk  is  milk  from  which  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  water  has  been  evaporated  and  to  which  sugar 
(sucrose)  has  been  added,  and  contains  not  less  than  twenty- 
eight  (28)  per  cent  of  milk  solids,  of  which  not  less  than  twenty- 
seven  and  five-tenths  (27.5)  per  cent  is  milk  fat. 

411 


412  GOVERNMENT  STANDARDS  OF  PURITY 

8.  Condensed  skim  milk  is  skim  milk  from  which  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  water  has  been  evaporated. 

9.  Buttermilk  is  the  product  that  remains  when  butter  is 
removed  from  milk  or  cream  in  the  process  of  churning. 

10.  Goat's  milk,  ewe's  milk,  etc.,  are  the  fresh,  clean,  lacteal 
secretions,  free  from  colostrum,  obtained  by  the  complete  milking 
of  healthy  animals  other  than  cows,  properly  fed  and  kept,  and 
conform  in  name  to  the  species  of  animals  from  which  they 
are  obtained. 

B.    CKEAM 

1.  Cream  is  that  portion  of  milk,  rich  in  milk  fat,  which 
rises  to  the  surface  of  milk  on  standing,  or  is  separated  from  it 
by  centrifugal  force,  is  fresh  and  clean  and  contains  not  less  than 
eighteen  (18)  per  cent  of  milk  fat. 

2.  Evaporated  cream,  clotted  cream,  is  cream  from  which  a 
considerable  portion  of  water  has  been  evaporated. 

C.    MILK    FAT    OR    BUTTER    FAT 

1.  Milk  fat,  butter  fat,  is  the  fat  of  milk  and  has  the  Keich- 
ert-Meissel  number  not  less  than  twenty-four  (21)  and  a  spe- 
cific gravity  of  not  less  than  0.905  (~I£)  (Both  fat  and  stand- 
ard at  this  temperature.) 

D.    BUTTER 

1,  Butter  is  the  clean,  non-rancid  product  made  by  gather- 
ing in  any  manner  the  fat  of  fresh  or  ripened  milk  or  cream  into  a 
mass,  which  also  contains  a  small  portion  of  the  other  milk 
constituents,  with  or  without  salt,  and  contains  not  less  than 
eighty-two  and  five-tenths  (82.5)  per  cent  of  milk  fat.  By  acts 
of  Congress  approved  August  2,  1886,  and  May  9,  1902,  butter 
may  also  contain  added  coloring  matter. 

2.  Renovated  butter,  process  butter,  is  the  product  made  by 
melting  butter  and  reworking,  without  the  addition  or  use  of 
chemicals  or  any  substances  except  milk,  cream,  or  salt,  and 
contains  not  more  than  sixteen  (16)  per  cent  of  water  and  at 
least  eighty-two  and  five-tenths  (82.5)  per  cent  of  milk  fat. 


KUMISS  413 

E.       CHEESE 

1.  Cheese  is  the  sound,  solid,  and  ripened  product  made  from 
milk  or  cream  by  coagulating  the  casein  thereof  with  rennet  or 
lactic  acid,  with  or  without  the  addition  of  ripening  ferments 
and  seasoning,  and  contains,  in  the  water-free  substance,  not 
less  than  fifty  (50)  per  cent  of  milk  fat.  By  act  of  Congress, 
approved  June  6,  1896,  cheese  may  also  contain  added  color- 
ing matter. 

2.  Skim  milk  cheese  is  the  sound,  solid,  and  ripened  product, 
made  from  skim  milk  by  coagulating  the  casein  thereof  with 
rennet  or  lactic  acid,  with  or  without  the  addition  of  ripening 
ferments  and  seasoning. 

3.  Goat's  milk  cheese,  ewe's  milk  cheese,  etc.,  are  the  sound, 
ripened  products  made  from  the  milks  of  the  animals  specified, 
by  coagulating  the  casein  thereof  with  rennet  or  lactic  acid, 
with  or  without  the  addition  of  ripening  ferments  and  seasoning. 

F.    ICE  CREAM 

1.  Ice  cream  is  a  frozen  product  made  from  cream  and  sugar, 
with  or  without  a  natural  flavoring,  and  contains  not  less  than 
fourteen  (14)  per  cent  of  milk  fat. 

2.  Fruit  ice  cream  is  a  frozen  product  made  from  cream, 
sugar,  and  sound,  clean,  mature  fruits,  and  contains  not  less 
than  twelve  (12)  per  cent  of  milk  fat. 

3.  Nut  ice  cream  is  a  frozen  product  made  from  cream, 
sugar,  and  sound,  non-rancid  nuts,  and  contains  not  less  than 
twelve  (12)  per  cent  of  milk  fat. 

G.       MISCELLANEOUS  MILK  PRODUCTS 

1.  Whey  is  the  product  remaining  after  the  removal  of  fat 
and  casein  from  milk  in  the  process  of  cheese-making. 

2.  Kumiss  is  the  product  made  by  the  alcoholic  fermentation 
of  mare's  or  cow's  milk. 


414  GOVERNMENT  STANDARDS  OF  PURITY 

Composition  of  Milk  and  Its  Products 

No  of  Casein  and   Milk 

Analyses  Water  Fat     Albumen  Sugar  Ash  Authority 

Perct.  Perct.  Perct.  Perct.  Perct. 

Cow's  milk 793  &7.17  3.69  3.55  4.88  .71  Konig 

Cow's  milk ...  87.75  3.40  3.50  4.60  .75  Fleishmann 

Cow's  milk   .....        5,552  87.10  3.90  3.20  5.10  .70  Van  Slyke 

Cow's  milk   200,000  87.10  3.90  3.40  4.85  .75  Richmond 

Colostrum  milk.  .             42  74.57  3.59  17.64  2.67  1.56  Konig 

Cream    43  68.82  22.66  3.76  4.23  .53  Konig 

Skim  milk 

(gravity)     ....             56  90.43  .87  3.26  4.74  .70  Konig 
Skim  milk 

(gravity)    354  90.52'  .32  Holland 

Skim  milk 

(centrifugal)..             ..  90.30  .10  3.55  5.25  .80  Van  Slyke 

Buttermilk   57  90.12  1.09  4.03  4.04  .72  Konig 

Buttermilk   31  91.67  .27  Holland 

Whey    46  93.38  .32  .86  4.79  .65  Konig 

Whey    ..  93.12  .27  .81  5.80  ...Van  Slyke 

Condensed  milk  (no 

sugar  added)  ..             36  58.99  12.42  11.92  14.49  2.18  Konig 
Condensed  milk, 

(sugar   added).            64  25.61  10.35  11.79  50.06  2.19  Konig 

Butter,  salted ... .        1,676  11.95  84.27  1.26      2.58  Woll 

Butter, 

sweet  cream...             10  12.93  84.53  .61  .68  1.25  Konig 
Butter, 

sour  cream 11  13.08  84.26  .81  .66  1.19  Konig 

Butter,    unsalted.            242  13.07  85.24  1.57  ...  .12  Woll 
Butter,  World's 

Fair,    1893 350  11.57  84.70  .95  ...  2.78  Farrington 

Cheese,   cream 127  36.33  40.71  18.84  1.02  3.10  Konig 

Cheese,  full  cream  .  .      143  38.00  30.25  25.35  1.43  4.97  Konig 

Cheese,  cheddar;  green       ...  36.84  33.83  23.72  5.61  Van  Slyke 

Cheese.cheddar.  cured        27  34.38  32.71  26.38  2.95  3.58  Drew 
Cheese,  World's  Fair, 

Mammoth,   1893    1  32.06  34.43  28.00  5.51  Shutt 

Cheese,    half-skim...        21  39.79  23.92  29.67  1.79  4.73  Konig 

Cheese,   skim 41  46.00  11.65  34.06  3.42  4.87  Konig 

Cheese, 

centrifugal  skim..         ..  50.5  1.2  43.1        5.2  Storch 


STANDARDS  FOR  BABCOCK  GLASSWARE  415 

STANDARDS   FOR  BABCOCK   GLASSWARE 
(Adopted  by  the  Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists  of  North  America.) 

Sec.  1.  The  unit  of  graduation  for  all  Babcock  glassware 
shall  be  the  true  cubic  centimeter  (0.998877  gram  of  water  at  4 
degrees  C). 

(a)  With  bottles,  the  capacity  of  each  per  cent  on  the  scale 
shall  be  two-tenths  (0.20)  cubic  centimeter. 

(b)  With  pipettes  and  acid  measures  the  delivery  shall  be 
the  intent  of  the  graduation  and  the  graduation  shall  be  read 
with  the  bottom  of  the  meniscus  in  line  with  the  mark. 

Sec.  2.  The  official  method  for  testing  bottles  shall  be 
calibration  with  mercury  (13.5471  grams  of  clean,  dry  mercury 
at  20  degrees  C,  carefully  weighed  on  analytical  balances,  to  be 
equal  to  5  per  cent  on  the  Babcock  scale),  the  bottles  being  pre- 
viously filled  to  zero  with  mercury. 

Sec.  3.  Optional  Methods. — The  mercury  and  cork,  alcohol 
and  burette,  and  alcohol  and  brass  plunger  methods  may  be  em- 
ployed for  the  rapid  testing  of  Babcock  bottles,  but  the  accuracy 
of  all  questionable  bottles  shall  be  determined  by  the  official 
method. 

Sec.  4.  The  official  method  for  testing  pipettes  and  acid 
measures  shall  be  calibration  by  measuring  in  a  burette  the 
quantity  of  water  (at  20  degrees  C.)  delivered. 

Sec.  5.  The  Limits  of  Error. — (a)  For  Babcock  bottles 
shall  be  the  smallest  graduation  on  the  scale,  but  in  no  case 
shall  it  exceed  five-tenths  (0.50)  per  cent,  or  for  skim  milk 
bottles  one-hundredth  (0.01)  percent. 

(b)  For  full-quantity  pipettes,  it  shall  not  exceed  one-tenth 
(0.10)  cubic  centimeter,  and  for  fractional  pipettes,  five-hun- 
dredths  (0.05)  cubic  centimeter. 

(c)  For  acid  measures  it  shall  not  exceed  two-tenths  (0.20) 
cubic  centimeter. 


416  GOVERNMENT  STANDARDS  OF  PURITY 

Chemical  Standards  for  Milk  and  Cream  in  Sixty  American  Cities. 


City 


Allentown,  Pa.  .  .  . 
Atlantic  City,  N.  J..  .  . 

Augusta,  Ga 

Baltimore,  Md.  .  .  . 
Birmingham,  Ala.  .    . 

Boston,  Mass 

Battle  Creek,  Mich.    . 

Beaumont,  Tex 

Butte,  Mont 

Charlotte,  N.  C 

Chicago,  111 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 

Cleveland,  Ohio.  .  . 
Columbia,  S.  C.  .  . 
Columbus,  Ohio. .    .    . 

Denver,  Colo 

Detroit,  Mich 

Elyria,  Ohio 

Fall  River,  Mass.   .    . 

Flint,  Mich 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich.. 
Great  Falls,  Mont.  . 
Houston,  Tex.  .  .  . 
Indianapolis,  Ind..  . 
Jacksonville,  Fla.  . .  . 
Jersey  City,  N.  J.  .  .  . 
Kansas  Citv,  Mo.  .    . 

Little  Rock,  Ark 

Long  Beach,  Cal.    .    . 
Los  Angeles,  Cal.   .    . 
Memphis,  Tenn.  .    .    . 
Minneapolis,  Minn.  . 
New  Orleans,  La.     .    . 

Newark,  N.  J 

New  Haven,  Conn.    . 

New  York,  N.  Y 

North  Yakima,  Wash. 

Oakland,  Cal 

Omaha,  Neb 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

Paterson,  N.  J  .  .  .  . 
Portland,  Ore.  .  .  . 
Providence,  R.  I..  .  . 
Rochester,  N.  Y.  .  . 
Saginaw,  Mich.  .  .  . 
St.  Joseph,  Mo.  .    .    . 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

St.  Paul,  Minn 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah  . 
San  Antonio,  Tex..  . 
San  Francisco,  Cal..    . 

Seattle,  Wash 

Spokane,  Wash 

Syracuse,  N.  Y.  .  .  . 
Tacoma,  Wash. .    .    . 

Toledo,  Ohio 

Topeka,  Kansas..  .  . 
Washington,  D.  C.  .  . 
Winona,  Minn .    .    .    . 


Per  cent  of 
milk  fat 


3.5 
3.5 

3.5 

3.35 

3 

3.25 

3.3 

3.25 

3 

3 


3 

3 

3.25 

3 

3 

3.25 

3.25 

3.25 

3 

3 

3.25 

3.5 

3.5 

3.5 

3.5 

3.5 

3.5 

3 

3.5 

3 

3.5 

3.5 

3.2 

3.25 

3 

3.2 

2.5 


Per  cent  of 
other  solids 


8.8 

8.5 

8.7 

8.5 

9 

9 


9.5 
8.5 

8.75 
8.5 
9 

8.5 
8.75 
12.5 
12.5 
9 

8.5 
8.5 
8.5 
8.5 
8 

8.5 
8.5 
8.5 
8.5 
8.75 


Per  cent 
6olids  for 
skim-milk 


8 

8.75 

8.5 


9.5 
9.25 


8.75 
9*3 
8.5 


8.75 
9.25 
9.25 


9.3 
9.25 


Note  the  inconsistency  in  relationship  between  the  per  cent  fat  and  the  per  cent  of 
solids  not  fat,  as  expressed  in  the  various  ordinance  requirements.     See  table  on  page  387. 


APPENDIX 


APPENDIX 

DAIRY  PROJECTS 

The  project  method  of  providing  practice  in  dairying  may  be  used 
(1)  in  colleges  and  schools  having  a  dairy  equipment  and  also  (2)  in 
schools  having  students  living  at  home. 

Projects  in  College  and  School  Dairies.— Under  this  plan  the  mem- 
bers of  the  class  are  divided  into  several  groups,  the  number  varying  with 
the  size  of  the  dairy  herd,  etc.  The  projects  may  be  pursued  either  ( 1 )  as 
individual  projects,  or  (2)  as  group  projects.  In  the  latter  case,  which 
is  more  common,  a  captain  of  the  group  is  appointed.  Several  groups  are 
first  assigned  to  the  production  department  of  the  dairy.  Others  are 
assigned  to  the  manufacturing  laboratory.  Perhaps  another  group  or 
individual  is  assigned  to  the  marketing  department. 

Each  group  in  the  production  department  should  have  a  certain  group 
of  cows  to  care  for  in  every  way — feeding,  watering,  bedding,  cleaning, 
milking,  etc.  Keep  records  of  labor,  feed,  and  milk.  Charge  the  manu- 
facturing department  for  milk  produced  and  calculate  the  net  returns  and 
the  labor  income. 

Each  group  in  the  manufacturing  laboratory  should  take  the  milk 
furnished  from  one  or  more  barn  groups,  credit  them  with  the  amount  of 
fat  in  it,  and  prepare  for  market  such  products  as  butter,  cheese,  whole 
milk,  and  cream.  These  products  may  in  turn  be  charged  to  a  marketing 
group,  if  there  be  one. 

At  convenient  times  in  the  term  the  instructor  shifts  the  groups  so 
that  all  groups  receive  experience  in  all  lines  of  dairy  work.  Each  group 
should  be  able  to  show  satisfactory  records  of  profit  or  labor  income  in  its 
mvn  department. 

Home  projects  in  dairying  are  planned  for  giving  experience  and 
training  to  individual  students.  They  furnish  most  training  when  they 
include  all  three  phases  of  the  work :  ( 1 )  Production,  ( 2 )  manufacture, 
and  (3)  marketing;  but  sometimes  they  are  restricted  to  one  or  two  of 
these  phases.  On  farms  not  well  equipped  for  manufacturing  dairy  prod- 
ucts, the  most  common  form  of  the  project  is  production  of  milk.  This 
should  usually  include  the  management  of  the  entire  herd — producers, 
dry  stock,  and  growing  stock.  A  student  may  agree  to  take  charge  of  the 
dairy  herd  owned  by  his  father  or  a  neighbor. 

PROJECT  OUTLINE 

The  value  of  the  herd  is  determined  at  that  time  and  a  detailed 
invoice  is  made  of  all  animals  and  other  properties  on  hand  at  the  time. 

The  studies  involved  are  given  with  citations  to  chapter  numbers  in 
this  text.  The  index  should  be  used  also.  Preference  of  breeds  (7-16). 
Pure  bred  vs.  grade  stock  (18).  Importance  of  having  a  sire  from  a  high 
producing    strain    (18).      Determining    the    value    of   dairy    cows    (6-12). 

419 


420  APPENDIX 

Value  of  equipment;  such  as  barn,  silos,  milk  house,  milking  utensils  and 
power  (21,  27).  What  other  improvements  or  equipment  are  necessary  'I 
Study  of  individual  cows  with  score  card  (6-12).  Value  of  registry  of 
merit  records  for  cows  (10). 

Feeding  the  Producing  Cows  (19,  2:3). — Working  out  a  balanced 
ration.  Compare  different  systems  of  feeding.  Home  mixing  of  feeds. 
Making  use  of  farm  grown  feeds.  Composition  of  different  feeds.  Impor- 
tance of  succulence,  salt,  and  water.     Suiting  feed  to  the  season. 

Cleaning  Barn  and  Care  of  Manure  (19,  20). — Best  forms  of  bed- 
ding. Use  of  absorbents.  Frequency  and  methods  of  removing  manure. 
Manure  values.  Methods  of  storing  manure.  Taking  directly  to  fields. 
Contracting  manure  produced  in  this  project.  Stalling  cows  or  keeping 
in  sheds  at  different  times,  seasons,  climates. 

Cleaning  Cows  Before  Milking  (25). — Importance  of  purity  of 
milk.     Effect  on  health  of  cows.     Method  of  cleaning  cows. 

Keeping  Cows  Healthy  (22). — Diseases  of  cattle.  Prevention, 
symptoms,  treatment. 

Daily  Milking  (19,  20). — Methods  of  hand  milking.  Cleanliness  in 
milking.  Suits.  Hands.  Stools.  Dust  in  air.  Flies.  Milking  machines. 
Milk   pails. 

Determining  Yields  (18,  28)/ — Value  of  weighing  and  sampling. 
Methods  of  determining  production.  Testing.  Record  keeping.  Registry 
of  merit  for  pure  breds. 

Care  of  Milk  (25,  26,  28,  29). — Straining,  cooling  and  aerating. 
Methods  of  holding  until  delivered.    Separation  of  cream.    Washing  utensils. 

Feed  and  Care  for  Dry  Stock  and  Heifers  (19,  23,  24).— Ration 
compared  with  production  ration.  Value  of  sire  from  Registry  of  Merit 
cow.  Age  for  hreeding  heifers.  Season  for  freshening.  Care  at  calving 
time.    Dehorning  heifers.     Culling  dry  stock.     Study  of  production  records. 

Feed  and  Care  of  Calves  ( 24 ) . — Care  of  very  young  calves.  Getting 
calves  to  eat  grain  and  hay.  Skim  milk  supplements  for  breeding  stock. 
Treatment  to  prevent  herns.  Fattening  calves  to  be  sold  for  veal.  Dis- 
posal of  best  males.  Registration  of  pure  breds.  Diseases  of  calves. 
Symptoms,  prevention,  treatment. 

Keeping  Feed  Records  (19,  23). — Uses  of  such  records.  Weighing 
and  measuring  feeds.  Calculating  costs  of  rations.  Simple  methods  of 
recording  weights.  Cost  per  animal  in  monthly  summaries.  Annual 
cost  per  cow.     Cost  of  rearing  calves. 

Financial  Record  of  Project- — Values  of  herd  and  other  equipment, 
at  first  and  last  of  year,  compared.  Depreciation  on  certain  parts  of 
the  equipment.  Value  of  products  during  the  year.  Livestock  sold. 
Labor  cost  for  year.     Feed  cost  for  year.     Net  returns.     Labor  income. 

Project  Report- — This  should  consist  of  two  parts:  (1)  Full  financial 
statement  including  the  points  above  mentioned.  (2)  Write  in  narrative 
form  a  full  story  of  the  procedure  and  the  results. 


APPENDIX 
TABLE  III— FEEDING  STUFFS 


421 


Giving  Pounds  of  Dry  Matter  and  Nutrients  Contained  in  a  Given  Number 
of  Pounds  of  Feed  Stuff. 


Cured  Roughage 


Fodder  Corn  (Drilled) 

Com  Stover 

Dry 

Digestible 

Digestible 

Lbs. 

Matter 

Pro. 

C-H. 

Fat 

Pro. 

C-H. 

Fat 

I 

.76 

.037 

.41 

.015 

1 

.59 

.014 

.31 

.007 

2 

1.52 

.074 

83 

.029 

2 

1.19 

.028 

.62 

.014 

3 

2.28 

.111 

1.24 

.044 

3 

1.78 

.042 

.94 

.021 

4 

3.04 

.148 

1.66 

.058 

4 

2.38 

056 

1.25 

.028 

5 

3.80 

.185 

2.07 

.073 

5 

2.97 

.070 

1.56 

.035 

6 

4.56 

.222 

2.48 

.088 

6 

3.57 

.084 

1.87 

.042 

7 

5.32 

.259 

2.90 

.102 

7 

4.16 

.098 

2.18 

.049 

8 

6.08 

.296 

3.31 

.117 

8 

4.76 

.112 

2.50 

.056 

9 

6.84 

.333 

3.73 

.131 

9 

5.35 

.126 

2.81 

.063 

10 

7.60 

.370 

4.14 

.146 

10 

5  98 

.140 

3.12 

.070 

Sorghum  Fodder 

Millet 

1 

.50 

.024 

.32 

.016 

1 

.86 

.050 

.47 

.011 

2 

1.01 

.048 

.64 

.032 

2 

1.72 

.100 

.94 

.022 

3 

1.51 

.072 

.96 

.048 

3 

2.58 

.150 

1.41 

.033 

4 

2.01 

.096 

1.28 

.064 

4 

3.44 

.200 

1.88 

.044 

5 

2.51 

.120 

1.60 

.080 

5 

4.30 

.250 

2.34 

.055 

6 

3.02 

.144 

1.93 

.096 

6 

5.16 

.300 

2.81 

.066 

7 

3.52 

.168 

2.25 

.112 

7 

6.02 

.350 

3.28 

.077 

8 

4.02 

.192 

2.57 

.128 

8 

6.88 

.400 

3.75 

.088 

9 

4.53 

.216 

2.89 

.144 

9 

7.74 

.450 

4.22 

.099 

10 

5.03 

.240 

3  21 

.160 

10 

8.60 

.500 

4.69 

.110 

Timothy 

Red  Top 

1 

.87 

.028 

.43 

.014 

1 

.91 

.048 

.47 

.010 

2 

1.74 

.056 

.87 

.028 

2 

1.82 

.096 

.94 

.020 

3 

2.60 

.084 

1.30 

.042 

3 

2.73 

.144 

1.41 

.030 

4 

3.47 

.112 

1.74 

.056 

4 

3.64 

.192 

1.88 

.040 

5 

4.34 

.140 

2.17 

.070 

5 

4.55 

.240 

2.34 

.050 

6 

5.21 

.168 

2.60 

.084 

6 

5.47 

.288 

2.81 

.060 

7 

6.08 

.196 

3.04 

.098 

7 

6.38 

.336 

3.28 

.070 

8 

6.94 

.224 

3.47 

.112 

8 

7.29 

.384 

3.75 

.080 

9 

7.81 

.252 

3.91 

.126 

9 

8.20 

.432 

4.22 

.090 

10 

8.68 

.280 

4.34 

.140 

10 

9.11 

.480 

4.69 

.100 

Prairie  (Upland) 

Prairie  (Mixed] 

1 

.87 

.03    |      .42 

.014 

1 

.84 

.029 

.41 

.012 

2 

1.75 

06          .84 

.028 

2 

1.62 

.058 

.83 

.024 

3 

2.62 

09       1.25 

.042 

3 

2.52 

.087 

1.24 

.036 

4 

3.50 

12 

1-67 

.056 

4 

3.36 

.116 

1.66 

.048 

5 

4.37 

15 

2-09 

.070 

5 

4.20 

.145 

2.07 

.060 

6 

5.25 

IS 

2.51 

.084 

6 

5.05 

.174 

2.49 

.072 

7 

6.12 

21 

2.93 

.098 

7 

5.89 

.203 

2.90 

.084 

8 

7.00 

24 

3.34 

.112 

8 

6.73 

.232 

3.32 

.096 

9 

7.87 

27 

3.76 

.126 

9 

7.57 

.261 

3.73 

.108 

10 

8.75 

30 

4.18- 

.140 

10 

8.41 

.290 

4.15 

.120 

422 


APPENDIX 
TABLE  III— Feeding  Stuffs— Continued 


CUREE 

Roughage — Continueo 

Prairie  (Swale) 

Barley 

Dry 

Digestible 

Dry 

Digestibl 

Lbs. 

Matter 

Lbs. 

Matter 

Pro. 

C-H. 

Fat 

Pro. 

C-H. 

Fat 

1 

.86 

•  026 

.42 

— oiT 

1 

.85 

.057 

.44 

.01 

2 

1  73 

.052 

.84 

.022 

2 

1.70 

.114 

.87 

.02 

3 

2.59 

.078 

1.26 

.033 

3 

2.55 

.171 

1.31 

.03 

4 

3  45 

.104 

1.68 

.044 

4 

3.40 

.228 

1.74 

.04 

5 

4.31 

.130 

2.09 

.055 

5 

4.25 

.285 

2.18 

.05 

6 

5.18 

.156 

2.51 

.066 

6 

5.10 

.342 

2.62 

.06 

7 

6.04 

.182 

2.93 

.077 

7 

5.95 

.399 

3.05 

.07 

8 

6.90 

.208 

3.35 

.088 

8 

6.80 

.456 

3.49 

.08 

9 

7.77 

.234 

3-77 

.099 

9 

7.65 

.513 

3-92 

.09 

10 

8.63 

.260 

4.19 

.110 

10 

8.50 

.570 

4.36 

.10 

Oat 

Pea 

1 

.86 

.047 

.37 

.017 

1 

.90 

.080 

.41 

.017 

2 

1.72 

.094 

.73 

.034 

2 

1.80 

.160 

.82 

.034 

3 

2.58 

.141 

1.10 

.051 

3 

2.71 

.240 

1.23 

.051 

4 

3.44 

•  188 

1.47 

.068 

4 

3,61 

.320 

1.64 

.068 

6 

4.30 

.235 

1.83 

.085 

5 

4.51 

.400 

2.05 

.085 

6 

5.16 

.282 

2.20 

.102 

6 

5.41 

.480 

2.47 

.102 

7 

6.02 

.329 

2.57 

.119 

7 

6.31 

.560 

2.88 

.119 

8. 

6.88 

.376 

2.94 

.136 

8 

7.22 

.640 

3.29 

.136 

9 

7.74 

.423 

3.30 

.153 

9 

8.12 

.720 

3.70 

.153 

10 

8.60 

.470 

3.67 

.170 

10 

9.02 

.800 

4.11 

.170 

Cow  Pea 

Soy  Bean 

1 

.89 

.058 

.39 

.013 

1 

.88 

.106 

.41 

.012 

2 

1.79 

.116 

.78 

.026 

2 

1.76 

.212 

.82 

024 

3 

2.68 

.174 

1.80 

.039 

3 

2.65 

.318 

1.23 

.036 

4 

3.58 

.232  • 

1.57 

.052 

4 

3.53 

.424 

1.64 

.048 

5 

4.47 

.290 

1.96 

.065 

5 

4.41 

.530 

2.04 

.060 

6 

5.37 

.348 

2.36 

.078 

6 

5.29 

.636 

2.45 

.072 

7 

6.26 

.406 

2.75 

.091 

7 

6.17 

.742 

2.86 

.084 

8 

7.16 

.464 

3.14 

.104 

8 

7.06 

.848 

3.27 

.096 

9 

8.05 

.522 

3.54 

.117 

9 

7.94 

.954 

3.68 

.108 

10 

8.95 

.580 

3.93 

.130 

10 

8.82 

1.060 

4.09 

420 

White  Clover 

Red  Clover 

1 

.90 

.115 

.42 

.015 

1 

.85 

.071 

.38 

.018 

2 

1.81 

.230 

.84 

.030 

2 

1.69 

.142 

.76 

.036 

3 

2.71 

.345 

1.27 

.045 

3 

2.54 

.213 

1.13 

.054 

4 

3.61 

.460 

1.69 

.060 

4 

3.39 

.284 

1.51 

.072 

5 

4.51 

.575 

2.11 

.075 

5 

4.23 

.355 

1.89 

.090 

6 

5.42 

.690 

2.53 

.090 

6 

5.08 

.426 

2.27 

.108 

7 

6.32 

.805 

2.95 

.105 

7 

5.93 

.497 

2.65 

.128 

8 

7.22 

.920 

3.38 

.120 

8 

6.78 

.568 

3.02 

.144 

9 

8.13 

1.035 

3.80 

.135 

9 

7,62 

.639 

3.40 

.162 

10 

9.03 

1.150 

4.22 

.150 

10 

8.47 

.710 

3.78 

.180 

APPENDIX 
TABLE  III — Feeding  Stuffs— Continued 


423 


CUREU 

Roughage — Continued 

Alsike  Clover 

Alfalfa 

Dry 

Digestible 

Dry 

Digestible 

Lbs. 

Matter 

Lbs. 

Matter 

Pro. 

C-H. 

Fat 

Pro. 

C-H. 

Fat 

1 

.90 

,084 

.42 

.015 

1 

.94 

.117 

.41 

.01 

2 

1.81 

.168 

.85 

.030 

2 

1.87 

.234 

.82 

.02 

3 

2.71 

.252 

1.27 

.045 

3 

2.81 

.351 

1.23 

.03 

4 

3.61 

.336 

1.70 

.060 

4 

3.74 

.467 

1.64 

.04 

5 

4.51 

.420 

2.12 

.075 

5 

4.68 

.585 

2.04 

.05 

6 

5.42 

.504 

2.55 

.090 

6 

5.62 

.702 

2.45 

.06 

7 

6.32 

.588 

2.97 

.105 

7 

6.55 

.819 

2.86 

.07 

8 

7.22 

.672 

3.40 

.120 

8 

7.49 

.936 

3.27 

.08 

9 

8.13 

.756 

3.82 

.135 

9 

8.42 

1.053 

3.68 

.09 

10 

9.03 

.840 

4.25 

.150 

10 

9.36 

1.170 

4.09 

.10 

Wheat  Straw 

Oat  Straw 

1 

.90 

.008 

.35 

.004 

1 

.91 

.013 

.39 

.008 

2 

1.81 

.016 

.70 

.008 

2 

1.82 

.026 

.79 

.016 

3 

2.71 

.024 

1.06 

.012 

3 

2.72 

.039 

1.18 

.024 

4 

3.62 

.032 

1.41 

.010 

4 

3.63 

.052 

1.58 

.032 

5 

4.52 

.040 

1.76 

.020 

5 

4.54 

.065 

1.97 

.040 

6 

5.42 

.048 

2.11 

.024 

6 

5.45 

.078 

2.37 

.048 

7 

833 

.056 

2.46 

.028 

7 

6.36 

.091 

2.76 

.056 

8 

7.23 

.064 

2.82 

.032 

8 

7.26 

.104 

3.16 

.064 

9 

8.14 

,072 

3.17 

.036 

9 

8.17 

.117 

3.55 

.072 

10 

9.04 

.080 

3.52 

.040 

10 

9.08 

.130 

3.95 

.080 

Barley  Straw 

Kaffir  Forage 

1 

.86 

.009 

.40 

.006 

1 

.48 

.009 

.26 

.011 

2 

1.72 

.018 

.80 

.012 

2 

.96 

.019 

.52 

.022 

3 

2.57 

.027 

1.20 

.018 

3 

1.44 

.028 

.78 

.033 

4 

3.43 

.036 

1.60 

.024 

4 

1.92 

.038 

1.04 

.044 

5 

4.29 

.045 

2.00 

.030 

5 

2.39 

.047 

1.29 

,055 

6 

5.15 

.054 

2.41 

.036 

6 

2.87 

.057 

1.55 

.066 

7 

6.01 

.063 

2.81 

.042 

7 

3.35 

.066 

1.81 

.077 

8 

6.86 

.072 

3.21 

.048 

8 

3.83 

.076 

2.07 

.088 

9 

7.72 

.081 

3.61 

.054 

9 

4.31 

.085 

2.33 

.099 

10 

8.58 

.090 

4.01 

.060 

10 

4.79 

.095 

2.59 

.110 

Oat  and  Pea  Hay 

Oat  and  Vetch  Hay 

1 

.89 

.076" 

.41 

.015 

1 

.85 

.083 

.36 

.013 

2 

1.79 

.152 

.83 

.030 

2 

1.70 

.166 

.72 

.026 

3 

2.68 

.228 

1.24 

.045 

3 

2.55 

,249 

1.07 

.039 

4 

3.58 

.304 

1.66 

.060 

4 

3.40 

.332 

1.43 

.052 

5 

4.47 

.380 

2.07 

.075 

5 

4.25 

.415 

1.79 

.065 

6 

5.37 

.456 

2.49 

.090 

6 

5.10 

.498 

2.15 

.078 

7 

6.26 

.532 

2.90 

.105 

7 

5.95 

.581 

2.51 

.091 

8 

7.16 

.608 

3.32 

.120 

8 

6.80 

.664 

2.86 

.104 

9 

8.05 

.684 

3.73 

...135 

9 

7.65 

.747 

3.22 

.117 

10 

8.95 

760 

4.15 

.150 

10 

8.50 

.830 

3.58 

.130 

424 


APPENDIX 

TABLE  III -Feeding  Stuffs— Continued 


SlLACE 


Corn  Silage 

Sorghum  Silage 

Dry 

Digestible 

Dry 

Digestible 

Matter 

Lbs. 

Matter 

Pro. 

C-H. 

Fat 

Pro. 

ci.  1 

Fat 

1 

.26 

.012 

.14 

.007 

1 

.24 

.004 

.13 

.002 

2 

.53 

.025 

.28 

.014 

2 

.48 

.008 

.27 

.004 

3 

.79 

.037 

.43 

.021 

3 

.72 

.012 

.40 

.006 

4 

1.06 

.050 

.57 

.028 

4 

.96 

.016 

.54 

.008 

5 

1.32 

.062 

.71 

.035 

5 

1.19 

.020 

.67 

.010 

6 

1.58 

.075 

.85 

.042 

6 

1.43 

.024 

.81 

.012 

7 

1.85 

.087 

.99 

.049 

7 

1.67 

.028 

.94 

.014 

8 

2.11 

.100 

1.14 

.056 

8 

1.91 

.032 

1.08 

.016 

9 

2.38 

.112 

1.28 

.063 

9 

2.15 

.036 

1.21 

.018 

10 

2.64 

.125 

1.42 

.070 

10 

2.39 

.040 

1.35 

.020 

Clover  Silage 

Alfalfa  Silage 

1 

.28 

.020- 

.13 

.010 

1 

.27 

.030 

.08 

.019 

2 

.56 

.040 

.27 

.020 

2 

.55 

.060 

.17 

.038 

3 

.84 

.060 

.40 

.030 

3 

.82 

.090 

.25 

057 

4 

1.12 

.080 

.54 

.040 

4 

1.10 

.120 

.34 

.076 

5 

1.40 

.100 

.67 

.050 

5 

1.37 

.150 

.42 

.095 

6 

1.68 

.120 

.81 

.060 

6 

1.65 

.180 

.51 

.114 

7 

1.96 

.140 

.94 

.070 

7 

1.92 

.210 

.59 

.133 

8 

2.24 

.160 

1.08 

.080 

8 

2.20 

.240 

.68 

.152 

9 

2.52 

.180 

1.21 

.090 

9 

2.47 

.270 

.76 

.171 

10 

2.80 

.200 

1.35 

.100 

10 

2.75 

.300 

.85 

.190 

Cow  Pea  Silage 

Soy  Bean  Silage 

1 

.21 

.015 

.09 

.009 

1 

.26 

.027 

.09 

.013 

2 

.41 

.030 

.17 

.018 

2 

.52 

.054 

.17 

.026 

3 

.62 

.045 

.26 

.027 

3 

.77 

.081 

.26 

.039 

4 

.83 

.060 

.34 

.036 

4 

1.03 

.108 

.35 

.052 

5 

1.03 

.075 

.43 

.045 

5 

1.29 

.135 

.43 

.065 

6 

1.24 

.090 

.52 

.054 

6 

1.55 

.162 

.52 

.078 

7 

1.45 

.105 

.60 

.063 

7 

1.81 

.189 

.61 

.091 

8 

1.66 

.120 

.69 

.072 

8 

2.06 

.216 

.70 

.104 

9 

1.86 

.135 

.77 

.081 

9 

2.32 

.243 

.78 

.117 

10 

2.07 

.150 

.86 

.090 

10 

2.58 

.270 

.87 

.130 

P 

la  Cannery  Reft 

se 

Corn  Cannery  Refuse- 

1 

.23 

.021 

.13 

.008 

1 

.21 

.003 

.12 

.006 

2 

.46 

.042 

.26 

.016 

2 

.42 

.006 

.24 

.012 

3 

.70 

.063 

.39 

.024 

3 

.63 

.009 

.36 

.018 

4 

.93 

.084 

.52 

.032 

4 

.84 

.012 

.48 

.024 

5 

1.16 

.105 

.65 

.040 

5 

1.05 

.015 

.59 

.030 

6 

1.39 

.126 

.79 

.048 

6 

1.26 

.018 

.71 

.036 

7 

1.62 

.147 

.92 

.056 

7 

1.47 

.021 

.83 

.042 

8 

1.86 

.168 

1.05 

.064 

8 

1.68 

.024 

.95 

.048 

9 

2.09 

.189 

1.18 

.072 

9 

1.89 

.027 

1.07 

.054 

10 

2.32 

.210 

1.31 

.080 

10 

2.10 

.030 

1.19 

.060 

APPENDIX 
TABLE  III— Feeding  Stuffs— Continued 


425 


Roots   *\ 

nd  Tubers 

Carrot 

Potato 

Dry 

Digestible 

Dry 

Digestible 



Pro. 

C-H.    , 

Fat 

Pro. 

C-H. 

Fat 

11 

.008 

.08 

.C02 

1 

.21 

.011 

.16 

.001 

23 

.016 

.16 

.004 

2 

.42 

.022 

.31 

.002 

3 

.34 

.024 

.23 

.006 

3 

.63 

.033 

.47 

.003 

4 

.46 

.032 

.31 

.008 

4 

.84 

.044 

.63 

.004 

5 

.57 

.040 

.39 

.010 

5 

1.04 

.055 

.78 

.005 

e 

68 

.048 

.47 

.012 

6 

1.25 

.066 

.94 

.006 

7 

.80 

.056 

.55 

.014 

7 

1.46 

.077 

1.10 

.007 

8 

.91 

.064 

.62 

.016 

8 

1.67 

.088 

1.26 

.008 

9 

1  03 

.072 

.70 

.018 

9 

1.88 

.099 

1.41 

.009 

10 

1.14 

.080 

.80 

.020 

10 

2.09 

.110 

1.57 

.010 

Sugar  Beet 

Common  Beet 

1 

.13 

.013 

.10 

.001 

1 

.11 

.012 

.08 

.001 

2 

.27 

.026 

.20 

.002 

2 

.23 

.024 

.16 

.002 

3 

.40 

.039 

.29 

.003    ! 

3 

.34 

.036 

.24 

.003 

4 

.54 

.052 

.39 

.004 

4 

.46 

.048 

.32 

.004 

5 

•  67 

.065 

.49 

.005 

5 

.57 

.060 

.39 

.005 

6 

•  81 

.078 

.59 

.006 

6 

.69 

.072 

.47 

.006 

7 

.94 

.091 

.69 

.007 

7 

.80 

.084 

.55 

.007 

8 

1.08 

.104 

78 

.008 

8 

.92 

.096 

.63 

.008 

9 

1  21 

.117 

.88 

.009 

9 

1.03 

.108 

.71 

.009 

10 

1.35 

.130 

.98 

.010 

10 

1.15 

.120 

.79 

.010 

Mangel 

Rutabaga 

1 

.09 

.010 

.05 

.002 

1 

.11 

.010 

.08 

.002 
.00*4 

2 

.18 

.020 

.11 

.004 

2 

.23 

.020 

.16 

3 

.27 

.030 

.16 

.006 

3 

.34 

.030 

.24 

.006 

4 

,36 

.040 

.22 

.008 

4 

.46 

.040 

.32 

.008 

5 

.45 

.050 

.27 

.010 

5 

.57 

.050 

.40 

.010 

6 

.55 

.060 

.33 

.012 

6 

.68 

.060 

.49 

.012 

7 

.64 

.070 

.38 

.014 

7 

.80 

.070 

.57 

.014 

8 

.73 

.080 

.44 

.016 

8 

.91 

.080 

.65 

.016 

9 

.82 

.090 

.49 

018 

9 

1.03 

.090 

.73 

.018 

10 

.91 

.100 

.55 

.020 

10 

1.14 

.100 

•  81 

.020 

Flat  Turnip 

Wet  Beet  Pulp 

1 

.10 

.009 

.06 

.001 

1 

.10 

.005 

.08 

.000 

2 

.20 

.018 

.13 

.002 

2 

.20 

.010 

.15 

.000 

3 

.30 

.027 

.19 

.003 

3 

.31 

.015 

.23 

.000 

4 

.40 

.036 

.26 

.004 

4 

.41 

.020 

.31 

.000 

5 

.49 

.045 

.32 

.005 

5 

.51 

.025 

.38 

.000 

6 

.59 

.054 

.38 

.006 

6 

.61 

.030 

.46 

.000 

7 

•9 

.063 

.45 

.007 

7 

.71 

.035 

.54 

.000 

8 

.79 

.072 

.51 

.008 

8 

.82 

.040 

.62 

.000 

9 

.89 

081 

.58 

.009 

9 

.92 

.045 

.69 

.000 

10 

.99 

.090 

.64 

.010 

10 

1.02 

.050 

.77 

.000 

426 


APPENDIX 

TABLE  III— Feeding  Stuffs— Continued 


CONCFN" 

rates — Ground  Grains 

and  By-Froducts 

Corn 

Barley 

Dry 

Digestible 

Dry 

Digestible 

Matter 

Lbs. 

Matter 

Pro. 

C-H. 

Fat 

Pro. 

C-H. 

Fat 

1 

.89 

.079 

.67 

.043 

1 

.89 

.084 

.65 

.016 

2 

1.78 

.158 

1.33 

.086 

2 

1.78 

.168 

1.31 

.032 

3 

2.67 

.237 

2.01 

.129 

3 

2.68 

.252 

1.96 

.048 

4 

3.56 

.316 

2.67 

.172 

4 

3.57 

.336 

2.61 

.064 

5 

4.45 

.395 

3.33 

.215 

5 

4.46 

.420 

3.26 

.080 

6 

5.35 

.474 

4.00 

.258 

6 

5.35 

.504 

3.92 

.096 

7 

6.24 

.553 

4.67 

.301 

7 

6.24 

.588 

4.57 

.112 

8 

7.13 

.632 

5.34 

.344 

8 

7.14 

.672 

5.22 

.128 

9 

8.02 

.711 

6.00 

.387 

9 

8.03 

.756 

5.88 

.144 

10 

8.91 

.790 

6.67 

.430 

10 

8.92 

.840 

6.53 

.160 

Oats 

Wheat 

1 

.90 

.107 

.50 

.038 

1 

.89 

.088 

.67 

.015 

2 

1.79 

.214 

1.01 

.076 

2 

1.79 

.176 

1.35 

.030 

3 

2.69 

.321 

1.51 

.114 

3 

2.68 

.264 

2.02 

.045 

4 

3.58 

.428 

2.01 

.152 

4 

3.58 

.352 

2.70 

.060 

5 

4.48 

.535 

2.51 

.190 

5 

4.47 

.440 

3.37 

.075 

6 

5.38 

.642 

3.19 

.228 

6 

5.37 

.528 

4.05 

.090 

7 

6.27 

.749 

3.52 

.266 

7 

6.26 

.616 

4.72 

.105 

8 

7.17 

.856 

4.02 

.304 

8 

7.16 

.704 

5.40 

.120 

F 

"8.06 

.963 

4.53 

.342 

9 

8.05 

.792 

6.07 

.135 

10 

8.96 

1.070 

5.03 

.380 

10 

8.95 

.880 

6.75 

.150 

Wheat  Bran 

Flour  Wheat  Middlings 

1 

.88 

.119 

.42 

.025 

1 

.90 

.17 

.54 

.041 

2 

1.76 

.238 

.84 

.050 

2 

1.80 

.34 

1.07 

.082 

3 

2  64 

.357 

1.26 

.075 

3 

2.70 

.51 

1.61 

.123 

4 

3.52 

.476 

1.68 

.100 

4 

3.60 

.68 

2.14 

.164 

5 

4.40 

.595 

2.10 

.125 

5 

4.50 

.84 

2.68 

.205 

6 

5.29 

.714 

2.52 

.150 

6 

5.40 

1.01 

3.22 

.246 

7 

6.17 

.833 

2.94 

.175 

7 

6.30 

1.18 

3.75 

.287 

8 

7.05 

.952 

3.36 

.200 

8 

7.20 

1.35 

4.29 

.328 

9 

7.93 

1.071 

3.78 

.225 

9 

8.40 

1.52 

4.82 

.369 

10 

8.81 

1.190 

4.20 

.250 

10 

9.00 

1.69 

5.36 

.410 

Wheat  Shorts 

r 

Red  Dog  Flour 

1 

.89 

.130 

46 

045 

.90 

.162 

.57 

.034 

2 

1.78 

,260 

91 

.090 

2 

1.80 

.324 

1.14 

.068 

3 

2.66 

.390 

1  37 

.135 

3 

2.70 

.486 

1.71 

.102 

4 

3.55 

.520 

1.83 

.180 

4 

3.60 

.658 

2.28 

.136 

5 

4.44 

.650 

2  28 

.225 

5 

4.50 

.810 

2.85 

.170 

6 

5.33 

.780 

2.74 

.270 

6 

5.41 

.972 

3.42 

.204 

7 

6.22 

.910 

3.20 

.315 

7, 

6.31 

1.134 

3.99 

.238 

8 

7.10 

1.040 

3.66 

.360 

8 

7.21 

1.296 

4.56 

.272 

9 

7.99 

1.170 

4.11 

.405 

9 

8.11 

1.458 

5.13 

.306 

10 

8.88 

1.300 

4.57 

.450 

10 

9.01 

1.620 

5.70 

.340 

APPENDIX 

TABLE  III — Feeding  Stuffs — Continued 


427 


Concentrates — Continued 

Emmer  (Speltz) 

Corn  and  Cob  Meal 

Dry 
Matter 

Digestible 

Lbs. 

Dry 

Digestible 

Pro. 

C-H. 

Fat 

Pro. 

C-H. 

Fat 

1 

.92 

.10 

.70 

.02 

1 

.85 

.044 

.60 

.029 

2 

1.84 

.20 

1.41 

.04 

2 

1.70 

.088 

1.20 

.058 

3 

2.76 

.30 

2.11 

.06 

3 

2.55 

.132 

1.80 

.087 

4 

3.68 

.40 

2.81 

.08 

4 

3.40 

.176 

2.40 

.116 

5 

4.60 

.50 

3.51 

.10 

5 

4.24 

.220 

3.00 

.145 

6 

5.52 

.60 

4.22 

.12 

6 

5.09 

.264 

3.60 

.174 

7 

6.44 

.70 

4.92 

,14 

7 

5.94 

.308 

4.20 

.203 

8 

7.36 

.80 

5.62 

J6 

8 

6.79 

.352 

4.80 

.232 

9 

8.28 

.90 

6.33 

.18 

9 

7.64 

.396 

5.40 

.261 

10 

9.20 

1.00 

7.03 

.20 

10 

8.49 

.440 

6.00 

.290 

Kaffir  Corn 

Sorghum  Seed 

1 

.90 

.052 

.44 

:oi4 

1 

.87 

.045 

.61 

.028 

2 

1.80 

.104 

.89 

.028 

2 

1.74 

.090 

1.22 

.056 

3 

2.70 

.156 

1.33 

.042 

3 

2.62 

.135 

1.83 

.084 

4 

3.60 

.208 

1.77 

.056 

4 

3.49 

.180 

2.44 

.112 

5 

4.50 

.260 

2.21 

.070 

5 

4.36 

.225 

3.05 

.140 

6 

5.41 

.312 

2.66 

.084 

6 

5.23 

.270 

3.67 

.168 

7 

6.31 

.364 

3.10 

.098 

7 

6.10 

.315 

4.28 

.196 

8 

7.21 

.416 

3.54 

.112 

8 

6.98 

-360 

4.89 

.224 

9 

8.11 

.468 

3.99 

.126 

9 

7.85 

.405 

5.50 

.252 

10 

9.01 

.520 

4.43 

.140 

10 

8.72 

.450 

6,11 

.280 

Buckwheat  Bran 

Buckwheat  Middlings 

1 

.92 

.059 

.34 

.02 

1 

.87 

.227 

.37 

.061 

2 

1.84 

.118 

.68 

.04 

2 

1.74 

.454 

.75 

.122 

3 

2.75 

.177 

1.02 

.06 

3 

2.62 

.681 

1.12 

.183 

4 

3.67 

.236 

1.36 

.08 

4 

3.49 

.908 

1.50 

.244 

5 

4.59 

.295 

1.70 

.10 

5 

4.36 

1.135 

1.87 

.305 

6 

5.51 

.354 

2.04 

.12 

6 

5.23 

1.362 

2.25 

.366 

7 

6.43 

.413 

2.34 

.14 

7 

6.10 

1.589 

2.62 

.427 

8 

7.34 

.472 

2.72 

.16 

8 

6.98 

1.816 

3.00 

.488 

9 

8.26 

.531 

3.06 

.18 

9 

7.85 

2.043 

3.37 

.549 

10 

9.18 

.590 

3.40 

.20 

10 

8.72 

2.270 

3.75 

.610 

Rye  Bran 

Rye  Middlings 

1 

.88 

.112 

.47 

.020 

1 

.88 

.110 

.53 

.026 

2 

1.77 

.224 

.94 

.036 

2 

1.76 

.220 

1.06 

.052 

3 

2.65 

.336 

1.40 

.054 

3 

2.65 

.330 

1.59 

.078 

4 

3.54 

.448 

1.87 

.072 

4 

3.53 

.440 

2.12 

.104 

5 

4.42 

.560 

2.34 

.090 

5 

4.41 

.550 

2.64 

.130 

428  APPENDIX 

TABLE  III — Feedinq  Stuffs — Continued 


Concentrates — Continued 


Millet 

Hominy  Feed 

Dry 

Digestible 

Dry 

Digestible 

Lb«. 

Matter 

Lbs. 

Matter 

Pro. 

C-H. 

Fat 

Pro. 

C-H. 

Fat 

1 

.88 

.071 

.48 

.025 

1 

.90 

.068 

.60 

.074 

2 

1.76 

.142 

.97 

.050 

2 

1.81 

.136 

1.21 

.148 

3 

2.64 

.213 

1.45 

.075 

3 

2.71 

.204 

1.81 

.222 

4 

3.52 

.284 

1.94 

.100 

4 

3.62 

.272 

2.42 

.296 

5 

4.39 

.355 

2.42 

.125 

5 

4.52 

.340 

3.02 

.370 

Com  Oil  Meal' 

Bean  Meal 

1 

.91 

.158 

.39 

.108 

1 

.89 

.202 

.42 

.013 

2 

1.83 

.316 

.78 

.216 

2 

1.78 

.404 

.85 

.026 

3 

2.74 

.474 

1.16 

.324 

3 

2.67 

.606 

1.27 

.039 

4 

3.66 

.632 

1.55 

.432 

4 

3.56 

.808 

1.69 

.052 

5 

4.57 

.790 

1.94 

.540 

5 

4.45 

1.010 

2.11 

.065 

Cow  Pea  Meal 

Soy  Bean  Meal 

1 

.85 

.168 

.55 

.011 

1 

.88 

.291 

.23 

.146 

2 

1.71 

.336 

1.10 

.022 

2 

1.77 

.582 

.47 

.292 

3 

2.56 

.504 

1.65 

.033 

3 

2.65 

.873 

.70 

.438 

4 

3.42 

.672 

2.20 

.044 

4 

3.53 

1.164 

.93 

.584 

5 

4.27 

.840 

2.74 

.055 

5 

4.41 

1.455 

1.16 

.730 

Gluten  Feed 

Gluten  Meal 

1 

.91 

.213 

.53 

.029 

1 

.90 

.297 

.42 

.061 

2 

1.82 

.426 

1.06 

.058 

2 

1.81 

.594 

.85 

.122 

3 

2.72 

.639 

1.58 

.087 

3 

2.71 

.891 

1.27 

.183 

4 

3.63 

.852 

2.11 

.116 

4 

3.62 

1.188 

1.70 

.244 

5 

4.54 

1.065 

2.64 

.145 

5 

4.52 

1.485 

2.12 

.305 

Linseed  Meal 

Cotton-seed  Meal 

1 

.90 

.302 

.32 

.069 

1 

.93 

.376 

.21 

.096 

2 

1.80 

.604 

.64 

.138 

2 

1.86 

.752 

.43 

.192 

3 

2.71 

.906 

.96 

.207 

3 

2.79 

1.128 

.64 

.288 

4 

3.61 

1.208 

1.28 

.276 

4 

3.72 

1.504 

.86 

.384 

5 

4.51 

1.510 

1.60 

.345 

5 

4.65 

1.880 

1.07 

.480 

Flax  Seed 

Tankage 

1 

.91 

.206 

.17 

.290 

1 

.930 

.501 

.00 

.116 

2 

1.82 

.412 

.34 

.580 

2 

1.860 

1.002 

.00 

.232 

3 

2.72 

.618 

.51 

.870 

3 

2.790 

1.503 

.00 

.348 

4 

3.63 

.824 

.68 

1.160 

4 

3.720 

2.004 

.00 

.464 

5 

4.54 

1.030 

.85 

1.450 

5 

4.650 

2.505 

.00 

.580 

APPENDIX 


429 


Madam  Consumer: 

Are  you  doing  your  part? 

In  case  of  trouble  with  the  MILK,  locate  the  fault 

NEAR    HOME   IF  POSSIBLE.  THAT   YOU   MAY  MOR£   SURELY 
AND   QUICKLY   REMEDY  IT. 

'.Protect  the  milk  when  received. 


i.i  m 


("BOARDS     K 
3'PLANER  ] 

SHAVINGS 
SAWDUST  OR 
EXCELSIOR 


The  milk  upon  delivery  to  be  set  into  this  fike-less 
cooker  like  sox .  it  will  retard  warming  in  summer 

and  freezing  in  winter. 


II.  Cool  the  milk  to  50°  or  below. 

I.  Set  bottle  into  pail. 

?..  Add  A  CHUNK  OF  ICE  . 

3.  Fill  the  pail  with  water. 

4.  Set  pail  ano  all  into  the 
ice  chest. 

5.  Milk  cared  for  th!j.s  will 
keep  sweet  twice  as  long 

The  dairyman  is  required       as  it  w,ll  !F  merely  fET 

8Y  LAW   TO  COOL  THE  MILK  INTO  THE   REFRIGERATOR. 

FOR   YOU.    Do  AS  MUCH  FOR 
YOURSELF  I 

ill.  Return  bottles  clean. 

1.  Wash  bottles  before  the  milk  dries 

ON    THEM. 

2.  UONT  USE  MILK  BOTTLES  IN  SICK  ROOM. 
j             3.  DONT  PUT  GASOLINE  ETC.  IN  BOTTLES. 

4.  Return  bottles  promptly  and  clean. 
ts-Jf         5.  Help  your  dairyman  protect  your 
family. 
By  your  bottles  your  neighbors  know  you. 

univ.  of  minn. 


CLEAN 


Fig.  133. — Chart  used  in  milk  campaigns. 


INDEX 


Abortion,   194 

Abundance    of    feed,    value    of,    226 

Acid,  sulphuric,  327 

care  of,  328 

errors  to  avoid,  328 

kind,  327 

strength,   327 

strength   in  percentage,   331 
Acid  test  for  cream,  363 
Acres  required  per  cow,  165 
Actino-mycosis,  209 
Adulteration   of  milk,   389 
Advanced  registry,   95 

Ayrshire,  95 

Brown  Swiss,   112 

Dutch  Belted,  130 

French-Canadian,  125 

Guernsey,   69 

Holstein-Friesian,  55 

Jersey,  85 

Red   Polls,    101 

Shorthorn,  120 
Appendix,  417 
Ayrshire,  90 

Babcock  test,  303 
Balanced  farming,  19 
Balanced    rations,   230 
Barn  plans,  179 

Body  growth  effected  by   food,   407 
Breeding  table,  155 
Breeding  associations,  143 
milk  records  for,   147 
selection  of  cow,  144 
three  day  records,  145 
Breeds  of  cattle,  the,  43 
Ayrshires,  90 

adaptations,  96 
advanced    registry,    95 
body  characteristics,  91 
dairy  characteristics,  94 
home  conditions,   91 
importation  to  America,  91 
origin,  90 
score  card,   96 
Brown  Swiss,  108 
adaptations,  114 
advanced  registry,  112 
body    characteristics,    109 


Breeds  of  cattle,  Brown  Swiss,  dairy 
characteristics,    112 
home  conditions,   108 
importation     to     America, 

110 
origin,  108 

registry  of  production,  112 
score  card,  114 

Dutch  Belted,   127 

advanced    registry,    130 
body  characteristics,  128 
dairy   characteristics,   130 
importation  to  America,  127 
origin,  127 
records,   130 

French-Canadian,   123 

advanced  registry,   124 
body  characteristics,   123 
dairy    characteristics,     124 
origin,    123 
record  of  performance,  125 

Guernsey,  62 

adaptations,   69 
advanced  registry,  69 
body  characteristics,  67 
dairy   characteristics,   68 
home  conditions,  64 
introduction  to  America,  65 
origin,   62 
score  card,   71 

Holstein-Friesian,  46 
adaptations,  51 
advanced  registry,  55 
beef  characteristics,  50 
body  characteristics,  47 
breed's  future,  the,  57 
dairy  characteristics,  48 
foreign  distribution,  51 
home  conditions,  46 
introduction  to  America,  50 
score  card,  58 

Jersey,  74 

adaptations,   83 
advanced  registry,  85 
American   vs.    Island   type, 

80 
beef   characteristics,   82 
body  characteristics,  77 
constitution,    82 
dairy  characteristics,   78 

431 


432 


INDEX 


Breeds  of  cattle,  Jersey,  home  con- 
ditions, 74 
improvement    from   within, 

75 
improvements    needed,    s;? 
introduction  to  America,  79 
Island    type,   80 
origin,  74 

plan  of  registration,  76 
register  of  merit,  8.5 
score  card,  86 
Eed   Polls,    100 

advanced  registry,  101 
body    characteristics,    100 
dairy    characteristics.    101 
home  conditions,  100 
introduction     to     America, 

100 
official  milk  records,  103 
origin,  100 
score  card,  103 
Shorthorn,   117 

advanced  registry,   120 
body  characteristics,   118 
dairy    characteristics,    118 
importation     to     America, 

118 
origin,   117 

record  of  merit  list,   120 
Breeds,  origin  of,  27 
a  cross,  29 
a  grade,  29 
common  stock,  29 
elements  of  dairy  type,  31 
present  day  breeds,  28 
pure  breeds,  value  of,  28 
Brown  Swiss,  the,   108 
Butter,  commercial  grades  of.  358 
Butter    making,    see    Dairy    butter 
making,   346 

Calves,  dairy,   raising,   248 
age  to  breed,  262 
age  to  separate,  261 
blood  meal,  258 
bone   meal,   259 
bull  dairy  development,  263 
calf  meals,  256 
calf  scours,  217,  257 
calves   suckling,  260 
cost  ot   raising,  263 
dehorning  with  caustic,  260 
eggs  for  calves,  258 
fall  vs.   spring,  249 
feeding,    250 
general  rule  for  feeding,  250 


Calves,  grain  for  calves,  253 

hay   for  calves,  254 

importance  of  raising,  249 

influence   of   early   feeding,   261 

nature's  way,  248 

order  of  feeding,  255 

pasture    for,    255,    263 

raising  calves  without  milk.  255 

removing  from  mother,   250 

rest,  25'.) 

scours,   calf,   217,   257 

skim   milk,   253 

sucking,   260 

veal  calves,  248 

water   for,    259 

whey   for,   257 

white  scours,  217,  257 
Calving  time,  225 
Care  of  cream  on  the  farm.  340 

cleanliness,  value  of,  340 

cream  ripening,  342 

delivery,  341 
Cattle,  early  use,  23 

evolution,  -i~> 
Centrifuge,  the,  325 

care  of,  326 

speed  of,  326 

temperature  of,  326 
Certified  milk,  production  of,  278 

standards  for,  278 
Change  of  routine,  175 
Chapped  teats,  215 
Cheese,  367 

cottage,    372 

farm  dairy,  367 
Child  labor,  16 
Clarified   milk,  393 
Clean  milk  production,  267 

barn,  the,  269 

certified  milk,  267 

cooling,   272 

flies,   270 

milkers,  the,  267 

pails,  the,  268 

shipping,  273 

stools,  the,  268 

strainers,  the.  269 

water,   272 
Common   ailments,    189 

actinomycosis,  209 
distribution,    209 
location,    210 
treatment,  210 

bloating,   215 


INDEX 


433 


Common  ailments,  bloating,  causes, 
216 

symptoms,  216 

treatment,  216 
chapped  teats,  215 
cow  pox,  213 
ergotism,  207 
foot  and  mouth  disease,  204 

causes  of,  205 

diagnosis,  206 

prevention  of,  208 

symptoms,  205 
foot  rot,  208 
garget,  213 
infectious  abortion,   194 

cause  of,   194 

manner    of    dissemination, 
195 

mode  of  infection,  196 

prevention    and    treatment, 
198 

symptoms,  196 
inflammation    of   udder    (mam- 
mitis),  211 

symptoms,  211 

treatment,  212 
lumpy  jaw,  209 
milk  fever,  200 

cause  of,   200 

prevention    of,   203 

symptoms   of,   200 

treatment  for,  203 
ring  worm,  220 
scours,  white,  217,  257 

cause  of,  217 

prevention,  189 
teats,  chapped,  215 
tuberculosis,  189 

bacilli   found   in   milk,    189 

cause  of,   189 

communicable   to  men,   189 

method  of  distribution,  192 

nature  of,  189 

symptoms,   190 

tuberculin  test  for,   192 
warts,  215 
Community  breeding,  141 
advanages,   143 
associations,  143 
disadvantages,    144 
Composition  of  feeds,  417 

of  food  and  effect  on  body,  408 
of   milk  and   its   products,   414 

solids,  406,  407 


Condensed  milk,  409 

Cost  of  dairy  foods,  409,  410 

Cottage    cheese,    372 

Cow  as  a  food  producer,  the,   3 

Cow  vs.  steer  in  food  production,  4 

Cream,  care  and  ripening,   340 

grading,    341 

ripening,   342 
Cream  separation,  332 

variation  in  cream  test,  333 

variation  in  skim  milk  test,  334 

weight  of  cream  per  gallon,  339 
Cream  separators,  332 

centrifugal,  332 

efficiency  in  skimming,  333 
effect  on  fat  loss,  333 


Dairy  barn,   features  of,   179 

cork  bricks,  179 

creosote  blocks,  180 

dimensions  of  stalls,  187 

facing  of  cows,  181,  182 

floor  material,   179 

hay  storage,  179 

light,  186 

manger,    188 

ventilation,    182 
Dairy  butter   making,   346 

acid  test,  363 

butter,  composition  of,  357 

butter,   market  classes   of,   358 

butter,  overrun,  356 

causes  of  difficult  churning,  350 

churn,  the,   347 

collection  of  cream,  346 

coloring,   348 

composition  of  butter,  357 

fat  test,  363 

making,  the,  348 

market  classes  of  butter,  358 

moisture  test,  365 

salt  test,  365 

selling,  355 

tests  in  creameries,  363 
Dairy  herd  management,  153 

acres  required  per  cow,   165 

breeding,  162 

care  after   calving,    160 

change   of   routine,    175 

cow's  bed,    170 

dehorning,  170 

dog,   the,"   176 

drought  effect  on  milk,  164 

drying  off  cow,   158 

first  vs.  last  milk,   168 


434 


INDEX 


Dairy  herd,  first  year's  record,  162 
flies,  protecting  against,  166 
food  effect  on  test  of  milk,  163 
fountain,  private  drinking,   173 
gestation  period,   154 
getting  most  from  cows,  177 
giving  the  cow  a  rest,  157 
hard  milkers,   172 
kicking  cows,   171 
large  vs.  small  pasture,  164 
leaking  teats,   172 
light,  186 

manure  an  index  to  feeding,  159 
milk  fever,  161 
milking  before  calving,  159 
milking  machine,  169 
milking  methods,  167 
muslin  curtain,   186 
naming  the  cows,  172 
number  times  to  milk,  162 
pasture,  large  vs.  small,  164 
pasture,  supplementing,   166 
period  of  greatest  yield,  162 
preparing  for  record,  158 
private   drinking  fountain,   173 
protecting  against  flies,  166 
putting  onto  fall  basis,   157 
routine,  change  of,   175 
salt  requirement,  174 
short  pasture,    165 
sucking   cows,   171 
temperature,  186 
time  to  freshen,  154 
turning  onto  pasture,  effect  of, 

164 
ventilation,  182 
watering,   173 

Dairying,   the  why  of,  3 

Dairy  score  card,  275 

Dairy  testing  associations,  148 
number  of,   150 
result  of,   149 

Dairy  type,  elements  of,  31 
capacity  for  food,  31 
constitution,  34 
dairy  temperament,  33 
femininity,   36 
food,  capacity  for,  31 
mammary  development,  36 
temperament,  dairy,  33 
triple  wedge,  36 
type  essential  to  economy,  42 

Dehorning  calves,  260 
cows,    170 

Difficult  churning  in  winter,  356 


Drought  effect  on  milk,  164 
Dry  milk,  409 
Drying  off  the  cow,  158 
Dutch  Belted,  the,  127 

Early  use  of  cattle,  23 
Energy  in  milk,  404 
Evaporated  milks,  409 

Farm  dairying,  291 
Farm  milk  house,  293 

construction,  299 

ice  house,  300 

location,   298 

requirements,   293 
Fat  globules,   size,   388 
Fat   yield,    estimated,    426 
Feeding  in  winter,  see  Winter  feed- 
ing,  225 
Feeding   standard,    232 
Fertilizing  value   of  plants,  8 
Flies,  protecting  against,  166 
Food  values  of  milk,  401 
Foot   and    mouth   disease,    204 
Foundation    stock,    138 
French-Canadian,   the,   123 

Garget,    213 

General  rule   for   feeding,   239 
Gestation  table,   155 
Glassware,   cleaning,  329 

testing,  415 
Goats,  milch,   131 

breeds,   133 

dairy  type  in  goats,  132 

goats,  maligned,  the  131 

milk  composition,   136 

milk   records,    134 
Gouda  cheese,  367 
Guernsey,    the,    62 

Haecker's    feeding    standard,    232 
Herd   management,   see   Dairy   herd 

management,    153 
High-priced   lands,    19 
Hostein-Friesian,  the,  46 
Homogenized  milk,  397 
Human  food  production,  3 

Ice  cream,  375 
Ice  house,  300 
Income,  direct,  17 

indirect,    17 

regular,  16 
Infants,    milk   for,   406 


INDEX 


435 


Jersey,  the,  74 

Lactometer,   the,   389,   390 
Lumpy  jaw,  209 

Maintainance  ration,  229 
Management   of   the   herd,    153 
Manure,   10-13 

amount   produced,    10 

composition   of,    11 

value   of,    10 

value   of   per   ton,    12 

value  of  per  year,   13 
Market   milk,   383 

adulteration,   389 

certified  milk,  396 

standards   for,   278 

clarifying  milk,  393 

classes  of  market  milk,  393 

factors    influencing    quality    of, 
384 

homogenized   milk,   397 

milk   for   infants,   406 

New  York  grades,  274 

pasturized    milk,    395 

sanitary  milk,   396 

score    card    for    dairies,    275 

score  card  for  milk,  386 

standardized   milk,   394 
Marketing   butter,   355 
Methods  of  selling  milk,  399 
Milk  and  cream  testing,  303 

buttermilk,   testing,   324 

calculating  the  fat,  312 

cheese,  testing,  325 

composite  samples,  317 

equipment  and  cost,  303 

making   the   test,   305 

operation,   305 

preservatives,    315 

reading  the  test, 
cream,    321 
milk,   311 

sampling,   305,   314,   316 

skim  milk  testing,  323 

sour   milk   testing,   316 

test,   true  average,   321 

testing  cream,   317 

testing  frozen  milk,  316 

testing    whey,    324 

weighing   cream,   317 

whey  test,   324 
Milk,  composition  of,  231,  339,  403, 
406,  407 


Milk,  adulteration  of,   389 

city  standards  for  milk,  416 

composition    of    milk    and    its 
products,   414 

cost  compared,  408 

food  composition  effect  on  body 

growth,    406 
Milk,  food  value  of,  401 

government    standards    of    pur- 
ity, 411 

methods  of  selling  milk,  399 

milk  for   adults,   408 

milk   for   infants,   406 

total  solids,  392 
Milk  fever,  200 
Milk   house,   293 
Milk   score  card,  386 
Milking  machines,  169 
Minerals  of  milk,  403 
Moisture  test,   365 

New  York  milk  grades,  274 
Nutrients,  net,  required,  232 

Order  of  feeding  calves,  255 

cows,    244 
Overrun  in  butter,  356 

Palatability,  value  of,  227 
Pasturized   milk,    395 
Powdered  milk,  409 
Proteins  of  feed,  228 
of    milk,    404 

Records,    feeding    for,   241 
Records,   see  Advanced   registry,   95 
Red   polls,   the,    100 
Regulation  of  labor,   18 
Ringworm,   220 
Ripening  cream,  342 
Rochester  score  card,  276 
Roots    for   cows,    243 

Salt  requirement,   174 

Salt   test,    the,    365 

Sanitary  milk,  396 

Sanitary  milk  pails,  269 

Score  card   for  Ayrshire,   the,   96 

Brown  Swiss,*  the,   114 

dairies,    276 

Guernsey,    the,    71 

Holstien-Friesian,    the,    58 

Jersey,  the,  87 

milk   and    cream,    386 

Red  Polls,  the,  103 


436 


INDEX 


Scours  in  calves,  217,  257 
Secretaries  of  breed  associations,  45 
Selling   market   milk,   methods,   399 
Selling  milk,  forms  of,  359 
Separators,   cream,   332 
Short   pasture,    165 
Shorthorn,  the,   117 
Silo,  the,  244 

advantages  of,   244 
Silo,  kinds,  245 
Sire,   selection  of,   139 
Skim   milk  for  calves,   255 
Standardizing  milk  and  cream,  336 
Standards  for  milk,  cities,  416 

government,    411 
Starting  a  dairy  herd,  138 

daily  records,   145 

foundation   stock,    138 

ideal  pedigree,   141 

quality   breeding,    141 

selection   of  dam,    144 

selection   of    sire,    139 
Succulence,  227 

Teeth,  silage  effect  on,  247 

Test    of    milk    affected    by    feeding, 

163 
Testing  associations,  148 
Testing    milk    and    cream,    303 
Tests  in  butter  making,  363 
Tuberculosis,    189 
Turning  to  pasture,  effect  on  milk, 

164 


Utilization  of  labor,  18 
of  waste  forage,  4 

Variations    in   cream    tests,    causes, 

333 
Veal  calves,  248 
Vitamines,    228,    253,    405 

Warts  on   cows  teats,  215 

Watering,    173 

Weed  seeds  in  manure,  247 
in  silo,  249 

Weight  of  cream  per  gallon,  339 

Whey   for  calves,   257 

Winter  feeding,  225 

abundance  of  feed,  value  of,  226 
adjusting  the  ration,  231 
balance    of    nutrients,    228 
calving  time,  215 
feeding   standards,   232 
general    rule,    a,    239 
heavy    yield,    feeding,    240 
maintenance  ration.  229 
order   of   feeding,   244 
palatability,    227 
ration  for  milk  production,  230 
records,    feeding    for,    240 
silage   effect   on   milk,   245 
silo,   244 

advantages,    244 
kinds,  245 
succulence  in  feed,  227 


ft  C.  State  Colkge 


(k 


